Center for Disease Control. Division of vector borne and infectious disease: West Nile Virus. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/index.htm.
Granwehr BP, Lillibridge KM, Higgs S, Mason PW, Aronson JF, Campbell GA, Barrett ADT, 2004. West Nile virus: where are we now? Lancet Infect Dis 4 :547–556.
Marra PP, Griffing S, Caffrey C, Kilpatrick AM, McLean R, Brand C, Saito E, Dupuis AP, Kramer L, Novak R, 2004. West Nile virus and wildlife. Bioscience 54 :393–402.
Randolph SE, Nuttall PA, 1994. Nearly right or precisely wrong? Natural versus laboratory studies of vector-borne diseases. Parasitol Today 10 :458–462.
Ribeiro JMC, Francischetti IMB, 2003. Role of arthropod saliva in blood feeding: sialome and post-sialome perspectives. Annu Rev Entomol 48 :73–88.
Ribeiro JM, 1987. Role of saliva in blood-feeding by arthropods. Annu Rev Entomol 32 :463–478.
Limesand KH, Higgs S, Pearson LD, Beaty BJ, 2003. Effect of mosquito salivary gland treatment on vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus replication and interferon alpha/beta expression in vitro. J Med Entomol 40 :199–205.
Wasserman HA, Singh S, Champagne DE, 2004. Saliva of the Yellow Fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, modulates murine lymphocyte function. Parasite Immunol 26 :295–306.
Cross ML, Cupp EW, Enriquez FJ, 1994. Differential modulation of murine cellular immune responses by salivary gland extract of Aedes aegypti. Am J Trop Med Hyg 51 :690–696.
Wanasen N, Nussenzveig RH, Champagne DE, Soong L, Higgs S, 2004. Differential modulation of murine host immune response by salivary gland extracts from the mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Med Vet Entomol 18 :191–199.
Zeidner NS, Higgs S, Happ CM, Beaty BJ, Miller BR, 1999. Mosquito feeding modulates Th1 and Th2 cytokines in flavivirus susceptible mice: an effect mimicked by injection of sialo-kinins, but not demonstrated in flavivirus resistant mice. Parasite Immunol 21 :35–44.
Schneider BS, Soong L, Zeidner NS, Higgs S, 2004. Aedes aegypti salivary gland extracts modulate anti-viral and TH1/TH2 cytokine responses to sindbis virus infection. Viral Immunol 17 :565–573.
Schneider BS, Soong L, Girard YA, Campbell G, Mason P, Higgs S, 2006. Potentiation of west nile encephalitis by mosquito feeding. Viral Immunol 19 :74–82.
Limesand KH, Higgs S, Pearson LD, Beaty BJ, 2000. Potentiation of vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus infection in mice by mosquito saliva. Parasite Immunol 22 :461–467.
Osorio JE, Godsey MS, DeFoliart GR, Yuill TM, 1996. La Crosse viremias in white-tailed deer and chipmunks exposed by injection or mosquito bite. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54 :338–342.
Edwards JF, Higgs S, Beaty BJ, 1998. Mosquito feeding-induced enhancement of Cache Valley Virus (Bunyaviridae) infection in mice. J Med Entomol 35 :261–265.
Reisen WK, Chiles RE, Kramer LD, Martinez VM, Eldridge BF, 2000. Method of infection does not alter response of chicks and house finches to western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. J Med Entomol 37 :250–258.
Sbrana E, Tonry JH, Xiao SY, Darosa AP, Higgs S, Tesh RB, 2005. Oral transmission of West Nile virus in a hamster model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72 :325–329.
Langevin SA, Bunning M, Davis B, Komar N, 2001. Experimental infection of chickens as candidate sentinels for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :726–729.
Vanlandingham DL, Schneider BS, Klingler K, Fair J, Beasley D, Huang J, Hamilton P, Higgs S, 2004. Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction quantification of West Nile virus transmitted by Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 :120–123.
Ebel GD, Dupuis AP, Nicholas D, Young D, Maffei J, Kramer LD, 2002. Detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of antibodies to West Nile virus in birds. Emerg Infect Dis 8 :979–982.
Gubler DJ, Rosen L, 1976. A simple technique for demonstrating transmission of dengue virus by mosquitoes without the use of vertebrate hosts. Am J Trop Med Hyg 25 :146–150.
SAS System for Windows [computer program]. Version 8. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, 1999.
Akhter R, Hayes CG, Baqar S, Reisen WK, 1982. West Nile virus in Pakistan. III. Comparative vector capability of Culex tritaeniorhynchus and eight other species of mosquitoes. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 76 :449–453.
Ribeiro JM, Rossignol PA, Spielman A, 1984. Role of mosquito saliva in blood vessel location. J Exp Biol 108 :1–7.
Turell MJ, Spielman A, 1992. Nonvascular delivery of Rift Valley fever virus by infected mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47 :190–194.
Turell MJ, Tammariello RF, Spielman A, 1995. Nonvascular delivery of St. Louis encephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses by infected mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) feeding on a vertebrate host. J Med Entomol 32 :563–568.
Mason PW, 1989. Maturation of Japanese encephalitis virus glycoproteins produced by infected mammalian and mosquito cells. Virology 169 :354–364.
Heidner HW, Knott TA, Johnston RE, 1996. Differential processing of sindbis virus glycoprotein PE2 in cultured vertebrate and arthropod cells. J Virol 70 :2069–2073.
Senne DA, Pedersen JC, Hutto DL, Taylor WD, Schmitt BJ, Panigrahy B, 2000. Pathogenicity of West Nile virus in chickens. Avian Dis 44 :642–649.
Swayne DE, Beck JR, Smith CS, Shieh WJ, Zaki SR, 2001. Fatal encephalitis and myocarditis in young domestic geese (Anser anser domesticus) caused by West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :751–753.
Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, Davis B, Bowen R, Bunning M, 2003. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 9 :311–322.
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Mosquito transmission of arboviruses potentially affects the course of viral infection in the vertebrate host. Studies were performed to determine if viral infection differed in chickens infected with West Nile virus (WNV) by mosquito bite or needle inoculation. Mosquito-infected chickens exhibited levels of viremia and viral shedding that were up to 1,000 times higher at 6, 12, and 24 hours post-feeding (PF) compared with those inoculated with 103 PFU by needle. Follow-up studies were conducted to determine if enhanced early infection was due to a higher viral dose inoculated by mosquitoes. Needle inoculation with successively higher doses of WNV led to higher early viremia and viral shedding; a dose ≥ 104 PFU by needle was required to attain the high early viremia observed in mosquito-infected chickens. Mosquitoes inoculated WNV at this level as estimated by feeding on a hanging drop of blood (mean: 102.5, range: 100.7–104.6 PFU). These results indicate that enhanced early infection in mosquito-infected chickens may be explained by higher viral dose delivered by mosquitoes. On the other hand, chickens infected by multiple mosquitoes (N = 3–11) had viremic titers that were 25–50 times higher at 6 and 12 hours PF than in chickens infected by a single mosquito, suggesting that viral dose is not the only factor involved in enhanced early infection. The likelihood that enhanced early infection in mosquito-infected chickens is due to a higher viral dose inoculated by mosquitoes and/or other factors (saliva, inoculation location, or viral source) is discussed.
Center for Disease Control. Division of vector borne and infectious disease: West Nile Virus. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/index.htm.
Granwehr BP, Lillibridge KM, Higgs S, Mason PW, Aronson JF, Campbell GA, Barrett ADT, 2004. West Nile virus: where are we now? Lancet Infect Dis 4 :547–556.
Marra PP, Griffing S, Caffrey C, Kilpatrick AM, McLean R, Brand C, Saito E, Dupuis AP, Kramer L, Novak R, 2004. West Nile virus and wildlife. Bioscience 54 :393–402.
Randolph SE, Nuttall PA, 1994. Nearly right or precisely wrong? Natural versus laboratory studies of vector-borne diseases. Parasitol Today 10 :458–462.
Ribeiro JMC, Francischetti IMB, 2003. Role of arthropod saliva in blood feeding: sialome and post-sialome perspectives. Annu Rev Entomol 48 :73–88.
Ribeiro JM, 1987. Role of saliva in blood-feeding by arthropods. Annu Rev Entomol 32 :463–478.
Limesand KH, Higgs S, Pearson LD, Beaty BJ, 2003. Effect of mosquito salivary gland treatment on vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus replication and interferon alpha/beta expression in vitro. J Med Entomol 40 :199–205.
Wasserman HA, Singh S, Champagne DE, 2004. Saliva of the Yellow Fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, modulates murine lymphocyte function. Parasite Immunol 26 :295–306.
Cross ML, Cupp EW, Enriquez FJ, 1994. Differential modulation of murine cellular immune responses by salivary gland extract of Aedes aegypti. Am J Trop Med Hyg 51 :690–696.
Wanasen N, Nussenzveig RH, Champagne DE, Soong L, Higgs S, 2004. Differential modulation of murine host immune response by salivary gland extracts from the mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Med Vet Entomol 18 :191–199.
Zeidner NS, Higgs S, Happ CM, Beaty BJ, Miller BR, 1999. Mosquito feeding modulates Th1 and Th2 cytokines in flavivirus susceptible mice: an effect mimicked by injection of sialo-kinins, but not demonstrated in flavivirus resistant mice. Parasite Immunol 21 :35–44.
Schneider BS, Soong L, Zeidner NS, Higgs S, 2004. Aedes aegypti salivary gland extracts modulate anti-viral and TH1/TH2 cytokine responses to sindbis virus infection. Viral Immunol 17 :565–573.
Schneider BS, Soong L, Girard YA, Campbell G, Mason P, Higgs S, 2006. Potentiation of west nile encephalitis by mosquito feeding. Viral Immunol 19 :74–82.
Limesand KH, Higgs S, Pearson LD, Beaty BJ, 2000. Potentiation of vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus infection in mice by mosquito saliva. Parasite Immunol 22 :461–467.
Osorio JE, Godsey MS, DeFoliart GR, Yuill TM, 1996. La Crosse viremias in white-tailed deer and chipmunks exposed by injection or mosquito bite. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54 :338–342.
Edwards JF, Higgs S, Beaty BJ, 1998. Mosquito feeding-induced enhancement of Cache Valley Virus (Bunyaviridae) infection in mice. J Med Entomol 35 :261–265.
Reisen WK, Chiles RE, Kramer LD, Martinez VM, Eldridge BF, 2000. Method of infection does not alter response of chicks and house finches to western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. J Med Entomol 37 :250–258.
Sbrana E, Tonry JH, Xiao SY, Darosa AP, Higgs S, Tesh RB, 2005. Oral transmission of West Nile virus in a hamster model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72 :325–329.
Langevin SA, Bunning M, Davis B, Komar N, 2001. Experimental infection of chickens as candidate sentinels for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :726–729.
Vanlandingham DL, Schneider BS, Klingler K, Fair J, Beasley D, Huang J, Hamilton P, Higgs S, 2004. Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction quantification of West Nile virus transmitted by Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 :120–123.
Ebel GD, Dupuis AP, Nicholas D, Young D, Maffei J, Kramer LD, 2002. Detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of antibodies to West Nile virus in birds. Emerg Infect Dis 8 :979–982.
Gubler DJ, Rosen L, 1976. A simple technique for demonstrating transmission of dengue virus by mosquitoes without the use of vertebrate hosts. Am J Trop Med Hyg 25 :146–150.
SAS System for Windows [computer program]. Version 8. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, 1999.
Akhter R, Hayes CG, Baqar S, Reisen WK, 1982. West Nile virus in Pakistan. III. Comparative vector capability of Culex tritaeniorhynchus and eight other species of mosquitoes. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 76 :449–453.
Ribeiro JM, Rossignol PA, Spielman A, 1984. Role of mosquito saliva in blood vessel location. J Exp Biol 108 :1–7.
Turell MJ, Spielman A, 1992. Nonvascular delivery of Rift Valley fever virus by infected mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47 :190–194.
Turell MJ, Tammariello RF, Spielman A, 1995. Nonvascular delivery of St. Louis encephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses by infected mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) feeding on a vertebrate host. J Med Entomol 32 :563–568.
Mason PW, 1989. Maturation of Japanese encephalitis virus glycoproteins produced by infected mammalian and mosquito cells. Virology 169 :354–364.
Heidner HW, Knott TA, Johnston RE, 1996. Differential processing of sindbis virus glycoprotein PE2 in cultured vertebrate and arthropod cells. J Virol 70 :2069–2073.
Senne DA, Pedersen JC, Hutto DL, Taylor WD, Schmitt BJ, Panigrahy B, 2000. Pathogenicity of West Nile virus in chickens. Avian Dis 44 :642–649.
Swayne DE, Beck JR, Smith CS, Shieh WJ, Zaki SR, 2001. Fatal encephalitis and myocarditis in young domestic geese (Anser anser domesticus) caused by West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :751–753.
Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, Davis B, Bowen R, Bunning M, 2003. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 9 :311–322.
Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 1409 | 1346 | 678 |
Full Text Views | 385 | 11 | 6 |
PDF Downloads | 105 | 9 | 4 |