ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Chan MS, 1997. The global burden of intestinal nematode infections—fifty years on. Parasitol Today 13 :438–443.
-
2
Michael E, Bundy DAP, 1997. Global mapping of lymphatic filariaisis. Parasitol Today 13 :472–476.
-
3
de Almeida AB, Freedman DO, 1999. Epidemiology and immunopathology of bancroftian filariasis. Microbes Infect 1 :1015–1022.
-
4
Stephenson LS, Latham MC, Kurz KM, Kinoti SN, Brigham H, 1989. Treatment with a single dose of albendazole improves growth of Kenyan schoolchildren with hookworm, Trichuris trichiura, and Ascaris lumbricoides infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg 41 :78–87.
-
5
Stephenson LS, Latham MC, Ottesen EA, 2000. Malnutrition and parasitic helminth infections. Parasitology 121 (Suppl):S23–S38.
-
6
Nesheim MC, Crompton DWT, 2002. Nutritional impact of intestinal helminthiasis during the human life cycle. Annu Rev Nutr 22 :35–59.
-
7
Bundy DAP, 1994. Immunoepidemiology of intestinal helminthic infections. 1. The global burden of intestinal nematode disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :259–261.
-
8
Sakti H, Nokes C, Hertanto WS, Hendratno S, Hall A, Bundy DAP, Satoto, 1999. Evidence for an association between hookworm infection and cognitive function in Indonesian school children. Trop Med Int Health 4 :322–334.
-
9
Nokes C, McGarvey ST, Shiue L, Wu G, Wu H, Bundy DA, Olds GR, 1999. Evidence for an improvement in cognitive function following treatment of Schistosoma japonicum infection in Chinese primary schoolchildren. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60 :556–565.
-
10
Sheehy TW, Meroney WH, Cox RS, Soler JE, 1962. Hookworm disease and malabsorption. Gastroenterology 42 :48–56.
-
11
Thein Hlaing, 1992. Ascariasis and childhood malnutrition. Parasitology 107 :S125–S136.
-
12
Albonico M, Stoltzfus RJ, Savioli L, Tielsch JM, Chwaya HM, Ercole E, Cancrini G, 1998. Epidemiological evidence for a differential effect of hookworm species, Ancylostoma duodenale or Necator americanus, on iron status of children. Int J Epidemiol 27 :530–537.
-
13
Cooper PJ, Chico M, Sandoval C, Espinel I, Guevara A, Levine MM, Griffin GE, Nutman TB, 2001. Human infection with Ascaris lumbricoides is associated with suppression of the interleukin-2 response to recombinant cholera toxin B subunit following vaccination with the live oral cholera vaccine CVD 103-HgR. Infection and Immunity 69 :1574–1580.
-
14
World Health Organization, 2005. Global Tuberculosis Control: Surveillance, Planning, Financing. WHO Report 2005. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
15
Grencis RK, 1997. Th2-mediated host protective immunity to intestinal nematode infections. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 352 :1377–1384.
-
16
Maizels RM, Balic A, 2004. Resistance to helminth infection: the case for interleukin-5-dependent mechanisms. J Infect Dis 190 :427–429.
-
17
Baily GVJ, 1980. Trial of BCG vaccines in South India for tuberculosis prevention. Indian J Med Res 72 :1–74.
-
18
Gotuzzo E, Butron B, Seas C, Penny M, Ruiz R, Losonsky G, Lanata CF, Wasserman SS, Salazar E, Kaper JB, Cryz S, Levine MM, 1993. Safety, immunogenicity, and excretion pattern of single-dose live oral cholera vaccine CVD 103-HgR in Peruvian adults of high and low socioeconomic levels. Infection and Immunity 61 :3994–3997.
-
19
Sabin EA, Araujo MI, Carvalho EM, Pearce EJ, 1996. Impairment of tetanus toxoid-specific Th1-like immune responses in humans infected with Schistosoma mansoni. J Infect Dis 173 :269–272.
-
20
Cooper PJ, Espinel I, Paredes W, Guderian RH, Nutman TB, 1998. Impaired tetanus-specific cellular and humoral responses following tetanus vaccination in human onchocerciasis: a possible role for interleukin-10. J Infect Dis 178 :1133–1138.
-
21
Kang G, Mathew MS, Rajan DP, Daniel JD, Mathan MM, Mathan VI, Muliyil JP, 1998. Prevalence of intestinal parasites in rural Southern Indians. Trop Med Int Health 3 :70–75.
-
22
Radhakrishna S, Frieden TR, Subramani R, 2003. Association of initial tuberculin sensitivity, age and sex with the incidence of tuberculosis in south India: a 15-year follow-up. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 7 :1083–1091.
-
23
Bentwich Z, Kalinkovich A, Weisman Z, Borkow G, Beyers N, Beyers AD, 1999. Can eradication of helminthic infections change the face of AIDS and tuberculosis? Immunol Today 20 :485–487.
-
24
Bentwich Z, 2000. Good worms or bad worms: do worm infections affect the epidemiological patterns of other diseases? Parasitol Today 16 :273–274.
-
25
Bentwich Z, 2000. Good worms or bad worms: do worm infections affect the epidemiological patterns of other diseases? Parasitol Today 16 :312.
-
26
Newport MJ, Huxley CM, Huston S, Hawrylowicz CM, Oostra BA, Williamson R, Levin M, 1996. A mutation in the interferon-γ-receptor gene and susceptibility to mycobacterial infection. N Engl J Med 335 :1941–1949.
-
27
World Health Organization, 2004. Training Manual on Diagnosis of Intestinal Parasites Based on the WHO Bench Aides for the Diagnosis of Intestinal Parasites. Geneva Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
28
Tuberculosis Chemotherapy Center, 1960. A concurrent comparison of isoniazid plus PAS with three regimens of isoniazid alone in the domiciliary treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis in South India. Bull WHO 23 :535–585.
-
29
Elliott AM, Nakiyingi J, Quigley MA, French N, Gilks CF, Whitworth JAG, 1999. Inverse association between BCG immunization and intestinal nematode infestation among HIV-1-positive individuals in Uganda. Lancet 354 :1000–1001.
-
30
Barreto ML, Rodrigues LC, Silva RCR, Assis AM, Reis MG, Santos CA, Blanton RE, 2000. Lower hookworm incidence, prevalence and intensity of infection in children with a bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccination scar. J Infect Dis 182 :1800–1803.
-
31
Randall AE, Perez MA, Floyd S, Black GF, Crampin AC, Ngwira B, Pistoni WN, Mulawa D, Sichali L, Mwaungulu L, Bickle Q, Fine PE, 2002. Patterns of helminth infection and relationship to BCG vaccination in Karonga District, northern Malawi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 :29–33.
-
32
Cooper PJ, Chico ME, Gaus D, Griffen GE, 2003. Relationship between bacilli Calmette-Guerin vaccination, Mantoux test positivity, and geohelminth infection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97 :473–476.
-
33
Rook GAW, Stanford JL, 1999. Skin-test responses to Mycobacteria in atopy and asthma. Allergy 54 :285–286.
-
34
Wills-Karp M, Santeliz J, Karp CL, 2001. The germless theory of allergic disease: revisiting the hygiene hypothesis. Nat Rev Immunol 1 :69–75.
-
35
Braun-Fahrlander C, Riedler J, Herz U, Eder W, Waser M, Grize L, Maisch S, Carr D, Gerlach F, Bufe A, Lauener RP, Schierl R, Renz H, Nowak D, von Mutius E, Allergy and Endotoxin Study Team, 2002. Environmental exposure to endotoxin and its relation to asthma in school-age children. N Engl J Med 347 :869–877.
-
36
Butland BK, Strachan DP, Lewis S, Bynner J, Butler N, Britton J, 1997. Investigation into the increase in hay fever and eczema at age 16 observed between the 1958 and 1970 British birth cohorts. Br Med J 315 :717–721.
-
37
Maziak W, Behrens T, Brasky TM, Duhme H, Rzehak P, Weiland SK, Keil U, 2003. Are asthma and allergies in children and adolescents increasing? Results from ISAAC phase I and phase III surveys in Munster, Germany. Allergy 58 :572–579.
-
38
Stafford RS, Ma J, Finkelstein SN, Haver K, Cockburn I, 2003. National trends in asthma visits and asthma pharmacotherapy, 1978–2002. J Allergy Clin Immunol 111 :729–735.
-
39
Braback L, Hjern A, Rasmussen F, 2004. Trends in asthma, allergic rhinitis and eczema among Swedish conscripts from farming and non-farming environments. A nationwide study over three decades. Clin Exp Allergy 34 :38–43.
-
40
Bager P, Rostgaard K, Nielsen NM, Melbye M, Westergaard T, 2003. Age at bacilli Calmette-Guerin vaccination and risk of allergy and asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 33 :1512–1517.
-
41
Krause TG, Hviid A, Koch A, Friborg J, Hyuler T, Wohlfahrt J, Olsen OR, Kristensen B, Melbye M, 2003. BCG vaccination and risk of atopy. J Am Med Assn 289 :1012–1015.
-
42
Gruber C, Meinlschmidt G, Bergmann R, Wahn U, Stark K, 2002. Is early BCG vaccination associated with less atopic disease? An epidemiological study in German preschool children with different ethnic backgrounds. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 13 :177–181.
-
43
Maizels RM, Yazdanbakhsh M, 2003. Immune regulation by helminth parasites: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Nat Rev Immunol 3 :733–744.
-
44
Maizels RM, Bundy DAP, Selkirk ME, Smith DF, Anderson RM, 1993. Immunological modulation and evasion by helminth parasites in human populations. Nature 365 :797–805.
-
45
Brown M, Mawa PA, Joseph S, Bukusuba J, Watera C, Whitworth JA, Dunne DW, Elliott AM, 2005. Treatment of Schistosoma mansoni infection increases helminth-specific Type 2 cytokine responses and HIV-1 loads in coinfected Ugandan adults. J Infect Dis 191 :1648–1657.
-
46
Shirakawa T, Enomoto T, Shimazu SI, Hopkin J, 1997. The inverse association between tuberculin responses and atopic disorder. Science 275 :77–79.
-
47
Kang G, Mathew MS, Rajan DP, Daniel JD, Mathan MM, Mathan VI, Muliyil JP, 1998. Prevalence of intestinal parasites in rural Southern Indians. Trop Med Int Health 3 :70–75.
-
48
Rao VG, Aggrawal MC, Yadav R, Das SK, Sahare LK, Bondley MK, Minocha RK, 2003. Intestinal parasitic infections, anaemia and undernutrition among tribal adolescents of Madhya Pradesh. Indian J Community Med 18 :26–29.
-
49
Naish S, McCarthy J, Williams GM, 2004. Prevalence, intensity and risk factors for soil-transmitted helminth infection in a South Indian fishing village. Acta Trop 2004; 91 :177–187.
-
50
Steel C, Ottesen EA, Weller PF, Nutman TB, 2001. Worm burden and host responsiveness in Wuchereria bancrofti infection: use of antigen detection to refine earlier assessments from the South Pacific. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65 :498–503.
-
51
Brabin L, 1990. Sex differentials in susceptibility to lymphatic filariasis and implications for maternal child immunity. Epidemiol Infect 105 :335–353.
-
52
Ciesielski SD, 1995. BCG vaccination and the PPD test: what the clinician needs to know. J Fam Pract 40 :76–80.
-
53
Menzies D, 2000. What does tuberculin reactivity after bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination tell us? Clin Infect Dis 31 :S71–S74.
-
54
Cainelli F, 2002. BCG efficacy and tuberculin skin testing. Lancet 359 :1521–1522.
-
55
Wang L, Turner MO, Elwood RK, Schulzer M, FitzGerald JM, 2002. A meta-analysis of the effect of bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination on tuberculin skin test measurements. Thorax 57 :804–809.
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56
Neuenschwander BE, Zwahlen M, Kim SJ, Lee EG, Rieder HL, 2002. Determination of the prevalence of infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis among persons vaccinated against bacillus Calmette-Guerin in South Korea. Am J Epidemiol 155 :654–663.
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COINCIDENT FILARIAL, INTESTINAL HELMINTH, AND MYCOBACTERIAL INFECTION: HELMINTHS FAIL TO INFLUENCE TUBERCULIN REACTIVITY, BUT BCG INFLUENCES HOOKWORM PREVALENCE
ETTIE M. LIPNER
ETTIE M. LIPNER
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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P. G. GOPI
P. G. GOPI
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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R. SUBRAMANI
R. SUBRAMANI
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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C. KOLAPPAN
C. KOLAPPAN
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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K. SADACHARAM
K. SADACHARAM
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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PAUL KUMARAN
PAUL KUMARAN
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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D. REBECCA PREVOTS
D. REBECCA PREVOTS
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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P. R. NARAYANAN
P. R. NARAYANAN
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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THOMAS B. NUTMAN
THOMAS B. NUTMAN
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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V. KUMARASWAMI
V. KUMARASWAMI
Office of Global Research and Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India
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The prevalence of helminth and tuberculosis infections is high in South India, whereas Bacille-Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine efficacy is low. Our aim was to determine whether concurrent helminth infection alters the ability to mount a delayed-type hypersensitivity response to tuberculin. In a cross-sectional study in southern India, individuals 6–65 years of age were screened for intestinal helminths, circulating filarial antigenemia, tuberculin reactivity, active tuberculosis, and history of BCG vaccination; 54% were purified protein derivative (PPD) positive, 32% had intestinal helminth infection, 9% were circulating filarial antigen positive, and 0.5% had culture-confirmed active tuberculosis. Only age and BCG vaccination were significantly associated with PPD reactivity; however, BCG vaccination was associated with a lower prevalence of hookworm infection relative to those without prior BCG vaccination. Neither intestinal helminth infection nor filarial infection was associated with diminished frequencies of PPD positivity. Our findings suggest that preceding helminth infection does not influence significantly the delayed-type hypersensitivity response to tuberculin.
Author Notes
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-
1
Chan MS, 1997. The global burden of intestinal nematode infections—fifty years on. Parasitol Today 13 :438–443.
-
2
Michael E, Bundy DAP, 1997. Global mapping of lymphatic filariaisis. Parasitol Today 13 :472–476.
-
3
de Almeida AB, Freedman DO, 1999. Epidemiology and immunopathology of bancroftian filariasis. Microbes Infect 1 :1015–1022.
-
4
Stephenson LS, Latham MC, Kurz KM, Kinoti SN, Brigham H, 1989. Treatment with a single dose of albendazole improves growth of Kenyan schoolchildren with hookworm, Trichuris trichiura, and Ascaris lumbricoides infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg 41 :78–87.
-
5
Stephenson LS, Latham MC, Ottesen EA, 2000. Malnutrition and parasitic helminth infections. Parasitology 121 (Suppl):S23–S38.
-
6
Nesheim MC, Crompton DWT, 2002. Nutritional impact of intestinal helminthiasis during the human life cycle. Annu Rev Nutr 22 :35–59.
-
7
Bundy DAP, 1994. Immunoepidemiology of intestinal helminthic infections. 1. The global burden of intestinal nematode disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :259–261.
-
8
Sakti H, Nokes C, Hertanto WS, Hendratno S, Hall A, Bundy DAP, Satoto, 1999. Evidence for an association between hookworm infection and cognitive function in Indonesian school children. Trop Med Int Health 4 :322–334.
-
9
Nokes C, McGarvey ST, Shiue L, Wu G, Wu H, Bundy DA, Olds GR, 1999. Evidence for an improvement in cognitive function following treatment of Schistosoma japonicum infection in Chinese primary schoolchildren. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60 :556–565.
-
10
Sheehy TW, Meroney WH, Cox RS, Soler JE, 1962. Hookworm disease and malabsorption. Gastroenterology 42 :48–56.
-
11
Thein Hlaing, 1992. Ascariasis and childhood malnutrition. Parasitology 107 :S125–S136.
-
12
Albonico M, Stoltzfus RJ, Savioli L, Tielsch JM, Chwaya HM, Ercole E, Cancrini G, 1998. Epidemiological evidence for a differential effect of hookworm species, Ancylostoma duodenale or Necator americanus, on iron status of children. Int J Epidemiol 27 :530–537.
-
13
Cooper PJ, Chico M, Sandoval C, Espinel I, Guevara A, Levine MM, Griffin GE, Nutman TB, 2001. Human infection with Ascaris lumbricoides is associated with suppression of the interleukin-2 response to recombinant cholera toxin B subunit following vaccination with the live oral cholera vaccine CVD 103-HgR. Infection and Immunity 69 :1574–1580.
-
14
World Health Organization, 2005. Global Tuberculosis Control: Surveillance, Planning, Financing. WHO Report 2005. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
15
Grencis RK, 1997. Th2-mediated host protective immunity to intestinal nematode infections. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 352 :1377–1384.
-
16
Maizels RM, Balic A, 2004. Resistance to helminth infection: the case for interleukin-5-dependent mechanisms. J Infect Dis 190 :427–429.
-
17
Baily GVJ, 1980. Trial of BCG vaccines in South India for tuberculosis prevention. Indian J Med Res 72 :1–74.
-
18
Gotuzzo E, Butron B, Seas C, Penny M, Ruiz R, Losonsky G, Lanata CF, Wasserman SS, Salazar E, Kaper JB, Cryz S, Levine MM, 1993. Safety, immunogenicity, and excretion pattern of single-dose live oral cholera vaccine CVD 103-HgR in Peruvian adults of high and low socioeconomic levels. Infection and Immunity 61 :3994–3997.
-
19
Sabin EA, Araujo MI, Carvalho EM, Pearce EJ, 1996. Impairment of tetanus toxoid-specific Th1-like immune responses in humans infected with Schistosoma mansoni. J Infect Dis 173 :269–272.
-
20
Cooper PJ, Espinel I, Paredes W, Guderian RH, Nutman TB, 1998. Impaired tetanus-specific cellular and humoral responses following tetanus vaccination in human onchocerciasis: a possible role for interleukin-10. J Infect Dis 178 :1133–1138.
-
21
Kang G, Mathew MS, Rajan DP, Daniel JD, Mathan MM, Mathan VI, Muliyil JP, 1998. Prevalence of intestinal parasites in rural Southern Indians. Trop Med Int Health 3 :70–75.
-
22
Radhakrishna S, Frieden TR, Subramani R, 2003. Association of initial tuberculin sensitivity, age and sex with the incidence of tuberculosis in south India: a 15-year follow-up. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 7 :1083–1091.
-
23
Bentwich Z, Kalinkovich A, Weisman Z, Borkow G, Beyers N, Beyers AD, 1999. Can eradication of helminthic infections change the face of AIDS and tuberculosis? Immunol Today 20 :485–487.
-
24
Bentwich Z, 2000. Good worms or bad worms: do worm infections affect the epidemiological patterns of other diseases? Parasitol Today 16 :273–274.
-
25
Bentwich Z, 2000. Good worms or bad worms: do worm infections affect the epidemiological patterns of other diseases? Parasitol Today 16 :312.
-
26
Newport MJ, Huxley CM, Huston S, Hawrylowicz CM, Oostra BA, Williamson R, Levin M, 1996. A mutation in the interferon-γ-receptor gene and susceptibility to mycobacterial infection. N Engl J Med 335 :1941–1949.
-
27
World Health Organization, 2004. Training Manual on Diagnosis of Intestinal Parasites Based on the WHO Bench Aides for the Diagnosis of Intestinal Parasites. Geneva Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
28
Tuberculosis Chemotherapy Center, 1960. A concurrent comparison of isoniazid plus PAS with three regimens of isoniazid alone in the domiciliary treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis in South India. Bull WHO 23 :535–585.
-
29
Elliott AM, Nakiyingi J, Quigley MA, French N, Gilks CF, Whitworth JAG, 1999. Inverse association between BCG immunization and intestinal nematode infestation among HIV-1-positive individuals in Uganda. Lancet 354 :1000–1001.
-
30
Barreto ML, Rodrigues LC, Silva RCR, Assis AM, Reis MG, Santos CA, Blanton RE, 2000. Lower hookworm incidence, prevalence and intensity of infection in children with a bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccination scar. J Infect Dis 182 :1800–1803.
-
31
Randall AE, Perez MA, Floyd S, Black GF, Crampin AC, Ngwira B, Pistoni WN, Mulawa D, Sichali L, Mwaungulu L, Bickle Q, Fine PE, 2002. Patterns of helminth infection and relationship to BCG vaccination in Karonga District, northern Malawi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 :29–33.
-
32
Cooper PJ, Chico ME, Gaus D, Griffen GE, 2003. Relationship between bacilli Calmette-Guerin vaccination, Mantoux test positivity, and geohelminth infection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97 :473–476.
-
33
Rook GAW, Stanford JL, 1999. Skin-test responses to Mycobacteria in atopy and asthma. Allergy 54 :285–286.
-
34
Wills-Karp M, Santeliz J, Karp CL, 2001. The germless theory of allergic disease: revisiting the hygiene hypothesis. Nat Rev Immunol 1 :69–75.
-
35
Braun-Fahrlander C, Riedler J, Herz U, Eder W, Waser M, Grize L, Maisch S, Carr D, Gerlach F, Bufe A, Lauener RP, Schierl R, Renz H, Nowak D, von Mutius E, Allergy and Endotoxin Study Team, 2002. Environmental exposure to endotoxin and its relation to asthma in school-age children. N Engl J Med 347 :869–877.
-
36
Butland BK, Strachan DP, Lewis S, Bynner J, Butler N, Britton J, 1997. Investigation into the increase in hay fever and eczema at age 16 observed between the 1958 and 1970 British birth cohorts. Br Med J 315 :717–721.
-
37
Maziak W, Behrens T, Brasky TM, Duhme H, Rzehak P, Weiland SK, Keil U, 2003. Are asthma and allergies in children and adolescents increasing? Results from ISAAC phase I and phase III surveys in Munster, Germany. Allergy 58 :572–579.
-
38
Stafford RS, Ma J, Finkelstein SN, Haver K, Cockburn I, 2003. National trends in asthma visits and asthma pharmacotherapy, 1978–2002. J Allergy Clin Immunol 111 :729–735.
-
39
Braback L, Hjern A, Rasmussen F, 2004. Trends in asthma, allergic rhinitis and eczema among Swedish conscripts from farming and non-farming environments. A nationwide study over three decades. Clin Exp Allergy 34 :38–43.
-
40
Bager P, Rostgaard K, Nielsen NM, Melbye M, Westergaard T, 2003. Age at bacilli Calmette-Guerin vaccination and risk of allergy and asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 33 :1512–1517.
-
41
Krause TG, Hviid A, Koch A, Friborg J, Hyuler T, Wohlfahrt J, Olsen OR, Kristensen B, Melbye M, 2003. BCG vaccination and risk of atopy. J Am Med Assn 289 :1012–1015.
-
42
Gruber C, Meinlschmidt G, Bergmann R, Wahn U, Stark K, 2002. Is early BCG vaccination associated with less atopic disease? An epidemiological study in German preschool children with different ethnic backgrounds. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 13 :177–181.
-
43
Maizels RM, Yazdanbakhsh M, 2003. Immune regulation by helminth parasites: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Nat Rev Immunol 3 :733–744.
-
44
Maizels RM, Bundy DAP, Selkirk ME, Smith DF, Anderson RM, 1993. Immunological modulation and evasion by helminth parasites in human populations. Nature 365 :797–805.
-
45
Brown M, Mawa PA, Joseph S, Bukusuba J, Watera C, Whitworth JA, Dunne DW, Elliott AM, 2005. Treatment of Schistosoma mansoni infection increases helminth-specific Type 2 cytokine responses and HIV-1 loads in coinfected Ugandan adults. J Infect Dis 191 :1648–1657.
-
46
Shirakawa T, Enomoto T, Shimazu SI, Hopkin J, 1997. The inverse association between tuberculin responses and atopic disorder. Science 275 :77–79.
-
47
Kang G, Mathew MS, Rajan DP, Daniel JD, Mathan MM, Mathan VI, Muliyil JP, 1998. Prevalence of intestinal parasites in rural Southern Indians. Trop Med Int Health 3 :70–75.
-
48
Rao VG, Aggrawal MC, Yadav R, Das SK, Sahare LK, Bondley MK, Minocha RK, 2003. Intestinal parasitic infections, anaemia and undernutrition among tribal adolescents of Madhya Pradesh. Indian J Community Med 18 :26–29.
-
49
Naish S, McCarthy J, Williams GM, 2004. Prevalence, intensity and risk factors for soil-transmitted helminth infection in a South Indian fishing village. Acta Trop 2004; 91 :177–187.
-
50
Steel C, Ottesen EA, Weller PF, Nutman TB, 2001. Worm burden and host responsiveness in Wuchereria bancrofti infection: use of antigen detection to refine earlier assessments from the South Pacific. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65 :498–503.
-
51
Brabin L, 1990. Sex differentials in susceptibility to lymphatic filariasis and implications for maternal child immunity. Epidemiol Infect 105 :335–353.
-
52
Ciesielski SD, 1995. BCG vaccination and the PPD test: what the clinician needs to know. J Fam Pract 40 :76–80.
-
53
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