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1
Lourenço-de-Oliveira R, Guimarães AE, Arle M, da Silva TF, Castro MG, Motta MA, Deane LM, 1989. Anopheline species, some of their habits and relation to malaria in endemic areas of Rondonia State, Amazon region of Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 84 :501–514.
-
2
Charlwood JD, 1996. Biological variation in Anopheles darlingi Root. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 91 :391–398.
-
3
Lounibos L, Conn JE, 2000. Malaria vector heterogeniety in South America. Am Entomol 46 :238–249.
-
4
Lehmann T, Licht M, Elissa N, Maega BT, Chimumbwa JM, Watsenga FT, Wondji CS, Simard F, Hawley WA, 2003. Population structure of Anopheles gambiae in Africa. J Hered 94 :133–147.
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Molina-Cruz A, de Merida AM, Mills K, Rodriguez F, Schoua C, Yurrita MM, Molina E, Palmieri M, Black WC IV, 2004. Gene flow among Anopheles albimanus populations in Central America, South America, and the Caribbean assessed by microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 :350–359.
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Conn JE, Rosa-Freitas MG, Luz SL, Momen H, 1999. Molecular population genetics of the primary neotropical malaria vector Anopheles darlingi using mtDNA. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 15 :468–474.
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Malafronte RS, Marrelli MT, Marinotti O, 1999. Analysis of ITS2 DNA sequences from Brazilian Anopheles darlingi (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 36 :631–634.
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POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE MALARIA VECTOR ANOPHELES DARLINGI IN A MALARIA-ENDEMIC REGION OF EASTERN AMAZONIAN BRAZIL
JAN E. CONN
JAN E. CONN
Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont; Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York; Center for Bioinformatics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Aeras Global Tuberculosis Vaccine Foundation, Rockville, Maryland; Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Museum Support Center, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, Maryland; Instituto Evandro Chagas, Ananindeua, Para, Brazil
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JOSEPH H. VINEIS
JOSEPH H. VINEIS
Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont; Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York; Center for Bioinformatics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Aeras Global Tuberculosis Vaccine Foundation, Rockville, Maryland; Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Museum Support Center, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, Maryland; Instituto Evandro Chagas, Ananindeua, Para, Brazil
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JONATHAN P. BOLLBACK
JONATHAN P. BOLLBACK
Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont; Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York; Center for Bioinformatics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Aeras Global Tuberculosis Vaccine Foundation, Rockville, Maryland; Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Museum Support Center, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, Maryland; Instituto Evandro Chagas, Ananindeua, Para, Brazil
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DAVID Y. ONYABE
DAVID Y. ONYABE
Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont; Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York; Center for Bioinformatics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Aeras Global Tuberculosis Vaccine Foundation, Rockville, Maryland; Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Museum Support Center, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, Maryland; Instituto Evandro Chagas, Ananindeua, Para, Brazil
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RICHARD C. WILKERSON
RICHARD C. WILKERSON
Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont; Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York; Center for Bioinformatics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Aeras Global Tuberculosis Vaccine Foundation, Rockville, Maryland; Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Museum Support Center, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, Maryland; Instituto Evandro Chagas, Ananindeua, Para, Brazil
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MARINETE M. PÓVOA
MARINETE M. PÓVOA
Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont; Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York; Center for Bioinformatics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Aeras Global Tuberculosis Vaccine Foundation, Rockville, Maryland; Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Museum Support Center, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, Maryland; Instituto Evandro Chagas, Ananindeua, Para, Brazil
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Anopheles darlingi is the primary malaria vector in Latin America, and is especially important in Amazonian Brazil. Historically, control efforts have been focused on indoor house spraying using a variety of insecticides, but since the mid-1990s there has been a shift to patient treatment and focal insecticide fogging. Anopheles darlingi was believed to have been significantly reduced in a gold-mining community, Peixoto de Azevedo (in Mato Grosso State), in the early 1990s by insecticide use during a severe malaria epidemic. In contrast, although An. darlingi was eradicated from some districts of the city of Belem (the capital of Para State) in 1968 to reduce malaria, populations around the water protection area in the eastern district were treated only briefly. To investigate the population structure of An. darlingi including evidence for a population bottleneck in Peixoto, we analyzed eight microsatellite loci of 256 individuals from seven locations in Brazil: three in Amapa State, three in Para State, and one in Mato Grosso State. Allelic diversity and mean expected heterozygosity were high for all populations (mean number alleles/locus and HE were 13.5 and 0.834, respectively) and did not differ significantly between locations. Significant heterozygote deficits were associated with linkage disequilibrium, most likely due to either the Wahlund effect or selection. We found no evidence for a population bottleneck in Peixoto, possibly because the reduction was not extreme enough to be detected. Overall estimates of long-term Ne varied from 92.4 individuals under the linkage disequilibrium model to ∞ under the heterozygote excess model. Fixation indices and analysis of molecular variance demonstrated significant differentiation between locations north and south of the Amazon River, suggesting a degree of genetic isolation between them, attributed to isolation by distance.
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1
Lourenço-de-Oliveira R, Guimarães AE, Arle M, da Silva TF, Castro MG, Motta MA, Deane LM, 1989. Anopheline species, some of their habits and relation to malaria in endemic areas of Rondonia State, Amazon region of Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 84 :501–514.
-
2
Charlwood JD, 1996. Biological variation in Anopheles darlingi Root. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 91 :391–398.
-
3
Lounibos L, Conn JE, 2000. Malaria vector heterogeniety in South America. Am Entomol 46 :238–249.
-
4
Lehmann T, Licht M, Elissa N, Maega BT, Chimumbwa JM, Watsenga FT, Wondji CS, Simard F, Hawley WA, 2003. Population structure of Anopheles gambiae in Africa. J Hered 94 :133–147.
-
5
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-
6
Endler JA, 1977. Geographic variation, speciation, and clines. Monogr Popul Biol 10 :1–246.
-
7
Donnelly MJ, Simard F, Lehmann T, 2002. Evolutionary studies of malaria vectors. Trends Parasitol 18 :75–80.
-
8
Cohuet A, Dia I, Simard F, Raymond M, Fontenille D, 2004. Population structure of the malaria vector Anopheles funestus in Senegal based on microsatellite and cytogenetic data. Insect Mol Biol 13 :251–258.
-
9
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-
10
Conn JE, Rosa-Freitas MG, Luz SL, Momen H, 1999. Molecular population genetics of the primary neotropical malaria vector Anopheles darlingi using mtDNA. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 15 :468–474.
-
11
Malafronte RS, Marrelli MT, Marinotti O, 1999. Analysis of ITS2 DNA sequences from Brazilian Anopheles darlingi (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 36 :631–634.
-
12
Mirabello L, Conn J, 2006. Molecular population genetics of the malaria vector Anopheles darlingi in Central and South America. Heredity 96 :311–321.
-
13
Akhavan D, Musgrove P, Abrantes A, d’Gusmao R, 1999. Cost-effective malaria control in Brazil. Cost-effectiveness of a malaria control program in the Amazon Basin of Brazil, 1988– 1996. Soc Sci Med 49 :1385–1399.
-
14
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-
16
Gil LH, Alves FP, Zieler H, Salcedo JM, Durlacher RR, Cunha RP, Tada MS, Camargo LM, Camargo EP, Pereira-da-Silva LH, 2003. Seasonal malaria transmission and variation of anopheline density in two distinct endemic areas in Brazilian Amazonia. J Med Entomol 40 :636–641.
-
17
Charlwood JD, Alecrim WD, Fe N, Mangabeira J, Martins VJ, 1995. A field trial with Lambda-cyhalothrin (ICON) for the intradomiciliary control of malaria transmitted by Anopheles darlingi root in Rondônia, Brazil. Acta Trop 60 :3–13.
-
18
Duarte EC, Gyorkos TW, Pang L, Abrahamowicz M, 2004. Epidemiology of malaria in a hypoendemic Brazilian Amazon migrant population: a cohort study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70 :229–237.
-
19
Póvoa MM, Conn JE, Schlichting CD, Amaral JC, Segura MN, Da Silva AN, Dos Santos CC, Lacerda RN, De Souza RT, Galiza D, Santa Rosa EP, Wirtz RA, 2003. Malaria vectors, epidemiology, and the re-emergence of Anopheles darlingi in Belém, Pará, Brazil. J Med Entomol 40 :379–386.
-
20
Duarte EC, Fontes CJ, 2002. Association between reported annual gold mining extraction and incidence of malaria in Mato Grosso-Brazil, 1985–1996. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 35 :665–668.
-
21
Alecrim W, 1992. Malaria, prospecting activities and government policies in the Amazon region. Rev Inst Med Trop São Paulo 34 (Suppl 9):S48.
-
22
de Andrade AL, Martelli CM, Oliveira RM, Arias JR, Zicker F, Pang L, 1995. High prevalence of asymptomatic malaria in gold mining areas in Brazil. Clin Infect Dis 20 :475.
-
23
Conn JE, Bollback J, Onyabe D, Robinson T, Wilkerson R, Póvoa M, 2001. Isolation of polymorphic microsatellite markers from the malaria vector Anopheles darlingi. Mol Ecol Notes 1 :223–225.
-
24
Marques AC, Gutierrez HC, 1994. Combate a malária no Brasil: evolução, situação atual e perspectivas. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 27 (Suppl. 1):91–108.
-
25
Deane L, Causey O, Deane M, 1946. An illustrated key by adult female characteristics for identification of thirty-five species of Anophelines from the northeast and Amazon regions of Brazil. Am J Trop Med 18 :1–18.
-
26
Rubio-Palis Y, Zimmerman RH, 1997. Ecoregional classification of malaria vectors in the neotropics. J Med Entomol 34 :499–510.
-
27
Conn JE, Wilkerson RC, Segura MN, de Souza RT, Schlichting CD, Wirtz RA, Póvoa MM, 2002. Emergence of a new neo-tropical malaria vector facilitated by human migration and changes in land use. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66 :18–22.
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