- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- RESULTS
- SPECIFIC CATERPILLAR ENVENOMINGS
- Family Lasciocampidae.
- Family Limacodidae (slug caterpillars).
- Family Lymantriidae (tussock moth caterpillars).
- Family Megalopyridae (flannel moth caterpillars).
- Family Saturniidae (giant silkworms).
- Family Notodontidae, Subfamily Thaumetopoeidae (processionary caterpillars).
- General management of caterpillar envenoming.
- Management of unknown caterpillar envenoming.
- Prevention of caterpillar envenoming.
- CONCLUSIONS
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Mebs D, 2002. Butterflies, moths, and their caterpillars. Mebs D, ed. Venomous and Poisonous Animals: A Handbook for Biologists, Toxicologists, and Toxinologists, Physicians and Pharmacists. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 205–208.
-
2
Gilmer PM, 1925. A comparative study of the poison apparatus of certain lepidopterous larvae. Ann Entomol Soc Am 18 :203–239.
-
3
Eaton JL, 1988. The exocrine glands. Eaton JL, ed. Lepidopteran Anatomy. New York: John Wiley, 211–228.
-
4
Veiga ABG, Blochtein B, Guimarães JA, 2001. Structures involved in the production, secretion, and injection of the venom produced by the caterpillar Lonomia obliqua (Lepidoptera, Saturniidae). Toxicon 39 :1343–1351.
-
5
Stehr FW, 1987. Order Lepidoptera. Stehr FW, ed. Immature Insects. Iowa City, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 288–596.
-
6
Duarte AC, Caovilla J, Lorini I, Lorini D, Mantovani G, Sumida J, Manfre PC, Silviera RC, de Moura SP, 1990. Insufiênca renal aguda por acidentes com lagartas. J Bras Nefrol 12 :184–186.
-
7
Epidemiologic notes and reports: rash illnesses associated with gypsy moth caterpillars-Pennsylvania. 1982 MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 31 :169–170.
-
8
Picarelli ZP, doValle JR, 1971. Pharmacological studies on caterpillar venoms. Bücherl W, Buckley EE, eds. Venomous Animals and Their Venoms. Volume 3. New York: Academic Press, 103–118.
-
9
White JC, 1901. Dermatitis produced by a caterpillar. Boston Med Surg J 144 :599.
-
10
von Ihering R, 1914. Estudo biologica das largartas urticantes ou tatoranas. Ann Paulistas Med Cirugia 3 :129–139.
-
11
Caffrey DJ, 1918. Notes on the poisonous urticating spines of Hemileuca oliviae larvae. J Econ Entomol 11 :363–367.
-
12
Arocha-Piñango CL, 1967. Fibrinólisis producida por contacto con orugas. Communicación preliminar. Acta Científica Venezolana 18 :136–139.
-
13
Arocha-Piñango CL, 1969. Fibrinolysis produced by contact with a caterpillar. Lancet 19 :810–812.
-
14
Guerrero B, Perales J, Gil A, Arocha-Piñango CL, 1999. Effect on platelet FXIII and partial characterization of Lonomin V, a proteolytic enzyme from Lonomia achelous caterpillars. Thromb Res 93 :243–252.
-
15
Etkind PH, O’Dell TM, Canada AT, Shama SK, Finn AM, Tuthill R, 1982. The gypsy moth caterpillar: a significant new occupational and public health problem. J Occup Med 24 :659–662.
-
16
Micks DW, 1952. Clinical effects of the “puss caterpillar” (Megalopyge opercularis) on man. Tex Rep Biol Med 10 :399–405.
-
17
Everson GW, Chapin JB, Normann SA, 1990. Caterpillar envenomations: a prospective study of 112 cases. Vet Hum Toxicol 32 :114–119.
-
18
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station News, 1981. U.S. Department of Agriculture/Forest Service Publication. May 1981.
-
19
Caterpillar-associated rashes in Northwest Rhode Island, 1981. Rhode Island Dis Bull 18.
-
20
Anderson JF, Furniss WE, 1983. Epidemic of urticaria associated with the first-instar larvae of the gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). J Med Entomol 20 :146–150.
-
21
Tuthill RW, Canada AT, Wilcock K, Etkind PH, O’Dell TM, Shama SK, 1984. An epidemiologic study of gypsy moth rash. Am J Public Health 74 :799–803.
-
22
Frahia Neto H, Ballarini AJ, Leao RNQ, 1986. Sindrome hemorrhagica por contato com larvas de mariposa (Lepidoptera, Saturniidae). Instituto Evandro Chagas: 50 anos de contribuicao asciencias biologicas e a medicina tropical. Belem Fundacao Servicos Sanda Publica 2 :811–820.
-
23
Duarte AC, Crusius PS, Pires CAL, Schilling MA, Fan HW, 1996. Intracerebral hemorrhage after contact with Lonomia caterpillars. Lancet 348 :1033.
-
24
da Silva WD, Rocha Campos AC, Goncalves LRC, Sousa E, Silva MC, Higashi HG, Yamagushi IK, Kelen EMA, 1996. Development of an antivenom against Lonomia obliqua caterpillars. Toxicon 34 :1045–1049.
-
25
Rocha-Campos AC, Goncalves LR, Higashi HG, Yamagushi IK, Fernandes I, Olivera JE, Ribela MT, Sousa-E-Silva MC, da Silva WD, 2001. Specific heterologous F(ab′)2 antibodies revert blood incompatibility from envenoming by Lonomia obliqua caterpillars. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :283–289.
-
26
Coll-Sangrona E, Arocha-Piñango CL, 1998. Fibrinolytic action on fresh human clots of whole body extracts and two semipurified fractions from Lonomia achelous caterpillar. Braz J Med Biol Res 31 :779–784.
-
27
Ziprowski L, Hofski E, Tahori AS, 1959. Caterpillar dermatitis. Isr Med J 18 :26–31.
-
28
Pitetti RD, Kuspis D, Krenzelok EP, 1999. Caterpillars: an unusual source of ingestion. Pediatr Emerg Care 15 :33–36.
-
29
Balit CR, Ptolemy HC, Geary MJ, Russell RC, Isbister GK, 2001. Outbreak of caterpillar dermatitis caused by airborne hairs of the mistletoe browntail moth (Euproctis edwardsii). Med J Aust 175 :641–643.
-
30
Maier H, Spiegel W, Kinaciyan T, Krehan H, Cabaj A, Schopf A, Hönigsmann H, 2003. The oak processionary caterpillar as the cause of an epidemic of airborne disease: survey and analysis. Br J Dermatol 149 :990–997.
-
31
Hanyang Anti-Epidemic Station, 1976. Initial report on destruction of bones and joints by caterpillars. Hubei Med J 4 :32.
-
32
Dezhou H, 1991. Dendrolimiasis: an analysis of 58 cases. J Trop Med Hyg 94 :79–87.
-
33
Goddard J, 2003. Physicians’ Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance. Fourth edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 137–138.
-
34
Lamy M, Werno J, 1989. The brown-tail moth of Bombyx Euproctis chrysorrhoea L. (Lepidoptera) responsible for Lepidopterism in France: biological interpretation. C R Acad Sci III 309 :605–610.
-
35
Xiao H, 1979. Radiographic changes in bone and joint in 244 cases of pine caterpillars’ disease. Chin J Radiol 13 :193–196.
-
36
Tang LL, 1983. Nursing of patients with pine caterpillars’ disease. Chin J Nurs 18 :85–87.
-
37
Cadera W, Pachtman MA, Fountain JA, 1984. Ocular lesions caused by caterpillar hairs (ophthalmia nodosa). Can J Ophthalmol 19 :40–44.
-
38
Blaikie AJ, Ellis J, Sanders R, MacEwen CJ, 1997. Eye disease associated with handling pet tarantulas: three case reports. BMJ 314 :1524–1525.
-
39
Allen VT, Miller OF III, Tyler WB, 1991. Gypsy moth caterpillar-revisited. J Am Acad Dermatol 24 :979–981.
-
40
Werno J, Lamy M, 1991. Urticating hairs of “brown-tail” moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea L.) (Lepidoptera): preliminary studies in urban and laboratory. C R Acad Sci III 312 :455–459.
-
41
de Jong MC, Kawamoto F, Bleumink E, Kloosterhuis AJ, Meijer GT, 1982. A comparative study of the venom of Euproctis caterpillars. Toxicon 20 :477–485.
-
42
Goddard J, 1995. Stings from puss caterpillars (letter). Am Fam Phys 52 :86.
-
43
Pinson RT, Morgan JA, 1991. Envenomation by the puss caterpillar (Megalopyge opercularis). Ann Emerg Med 20 :562–564.
-
44
Neustater BR, Stollman NH, Manten HD, 1996. Sting of the puss caterpillar: an unusual cause of abdominal pain. South Med J 89 :826–827.
-
45
McMillan JP, Purcell W, 1964. Hazards to health: the puss caterpillar alias wooly slug. N Engl J Med 271 :147–149.
-
46
Burdmann EA, Antunes J, Saldanha LB, Abdulkader RC, 1996. Severe acute renal failure induced by the venom of Lonomia caterpillars. Clin Nephrol 46 :337–339.
-
47
Donato JL, Moreno RA, Hyslop S, Duarte A, Antunes E, Le Bonniec BF, Rendu F, de Nucci G, 1998. Lonomia obliqua caterpillar spicules trigger human blood coagulation via factor X and prothrombin. Thromb Hemost 79 :539–542.
-
48
Zannin M, Lourenco DM, Motta G, Dalla Costa LR, Grando M, Gamborgi GP, Noguti MA, Chudzinski-Tavassi AM, 2003. Blood coagulation and fibrinolytic factors in 105 patients with hemorrhagic syndrome caused by accidental contact with Lonomia obliqua caterpillar in Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Thromb Hemost 89 :355–364.
-
49
Fan HW, Cardoso JL, Olmos RD, Almeida FJ, Viana RP, Martinez AP, 1998. Hemorrhagic syndrome and acute renal failure in a pregnant woman after contact with Lonomia caterpillars: a case report. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 40 :119–120.
-
50
Bessler E, Bildner E, Yassur Y, 1987. Thaumetopoea wilkinsonii (toxic pine caterpillars) blepharoconjunctivitis. Am J Ophthalmol 103 :117–118.
-
51
Lamy M, Pastureaud MH, Novak F, Ducombs G, Vincendeau P, Maleville J, Texier L, 1986. Thaumetopoein: an urticating protein from the hairs and integument of the pine processionary caterpillar (Thaumetopoea pityocampa). Toxicon 24 :347–356.
-
52
Werno J, Lamy M, Vincendeau P, 1993. Caterpillar hairs as allergens. Lancet 342 :936–937.
-
53
Moneo I, Vega JM, Caballero J, Vega J, Alday E, 2003. Isolation and characterization of Tha p 1, a major allergen from the pine processionary caterpillar (Thaumetopoea pityocampa). Allergy 58 :34–37.
-
54
Hered RW, Abbot G, Spaulding AG, Sanitato JJ, Wander AH, 1988. Ophthalmia nodosa caused by tarantula hairs. Ophthalmology 95 :166–169.
-
55
Hung JCC, Pecker CO, Wild NJ, 1996. Tarantula eyes. Arch Dis Child 75 :462–463.
-
56
Belyea DA, Tuman DC, Ward TP, Babonis TR, 1998. The red eye revisited: ophthalmia nodosa due to tarantula hairs. South Med J 91 :565–566.
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THE EVOLVING GLOBAL EPIDEMIOLOGY, SYNDROMIC CLASSIFICATION, MANAGEMENT, AND PREVENTION OF CATERPILLAR ENVENOMING
JAMES H. DIAZ
JAMES H. DIAZ
Program in Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center in New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana
Search for other papers by JAMES H. DIAZ in
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Search for other papers by JAMES H. DIAZ in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Caterpillars are the wormlike, larval forms of butterflies and moths of the insect order Lepidoptera. Next to flies, lepidopterans are the most abundant arthropods with more than 165,000 species worldwide, and with most species posing no human threats. However, caterpillar species from approximately 12 families of moths or butterflies worldwide can inflict serious human injuries ranging from urticarial dermatitis and atopic asthma to osteochondritis, consumption coagulopathy, renal failure, and intracerebral hemorrhage. Unlike bees and wasps, envenoming or stinging caterpillars do not possess stingers or modified ovipositors attached to venom glands, but instead bear highly specialized external nettling or urticating hairs and breakaway spines or setae to defend against attacks by predators and enemies. Since the 1970s, there have been increasing reports of mass dermatolgic, pulmonary, and systemic reactions following caterpillar encounters throughout the world.
Author Notes
- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- RESULTS
- SPECIFIC CATERPILLAR ENVENOMINGS
- Family Lasciocampidae.
- Family Limacodidae (slug caterpillars).
- Family Lymantriidae (tussock moth caterpillars).
- Family Megalopyridae (flannel moth caterpillars).
- Family Saturniidae (giant silkworms).
- Family Notodontidae, Subfamily Thaumetopoeidae (processionary caterpillars).
- General management of caterpillar envenoming.
- Management of unknown caterpillar envenoming.
- Prevention of caterpillar envenoming.
- CONCLUSIONS
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Mebs D, 2002. Butterflies, moths, and their caterpillars. Mebs D, ed. Venomous and Poisonous Animals: A Handbook for Biologists, Toxicologists, and Toxinologists, Physicians and Pharmacists. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 205–208.
-
2
Gilmer PM, 1925. A comparative study of the poison apparatus of certain lepidopterous larvae. Ann Entomol Soc Am 18 :203–239.
-
3
Eaton JL, 1988. The exocrine glands. Eaton JL, ed. Lepidopteran Anatomy. New York: John Wiley, 211–228.
-
4
Veiga ABG, Blochtein B, Guimarães JA, 2001. Structures involved in the production, secretion, and injection of the venom produced by the caterpillar Lonomia obliqua (Lepidoptera, Saturniidae). Toxicon 39 :1343–1351.
-
5
Stehr FW, 1987. Order Lepidoptera. Stehr FW, ed. Immature Insects. Iowa City, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 288–596.
-
6
Duarte AC, Caovilla J, Lorini I, Lorini D, Mantovani G, Sumida J, Manfre PC, Silviera RC, de Moura SP, 1990. Insufiênca renal aguda por acidentes com lagartas. J Bras Nefrol 12 :184–186.
-
7
Epidemiologic notes and reports: rash illnesses associated with gypsy moth caterpillars-Pennsylvania. 1982 MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 31 :169–170.
-
8
Picarelli ZP, doValle JR, 1971. Pharmacological studies on caterpillar venoms. Bücherl W, Buckley EE, eds. Venomous Animals and Their Venoms. Volume 3. New York: Academic Press, 103–118.
-
9
White JC, 1901. Dermatitis produced by a caterpillar. Boston Med Surg J 144 :599.
-
10
von Ihering R, 1914. Estudo biologica das largartas urticantes ou tatoranas. Ann Paulistas Med Cirugia 3 :129–139.
-
11
Caffrey DJ, 1918. Notes on the poisonous urticating spines of Hemileuca oliviae larvae. J Econ Entomol 11 :363–367.
-
12
Arocha-Piñango CL, 1967. Fibrinólisis producida por contacto con orugas. Communicación preliminar. Acta Científica Venezolana 18 :136–139.
-
13
Arocha-Piñango CL, 1969. Fibrinolysis produced by contact with a caterpillar. Lancet 19 :810–812.
-
14
Guerrero B, Perales J, Gil A, Arocha-Piñango CL, 1999. Effect on platelet FXIII and partial characterization of Lonomin V, a proteolytic enzyme from Lonomia achelous caterpillars. Thromb Res 93 :243–252.
-
15
Etkind PH, O’Dell TM, Canada AT, Shama SK, Finn AM, Tuthill R, 1982. The gypsy moth caterpillar: a significant new occupational and public health problem. J Occup Med 24 :659–662.
-
16
Micks DW, 1952. Clinical effects of the “puss caterpillar” (Megalopyge opercularis) on man. Tex Rep Biol Med 10 :399–405.
-
17
Everson GW, Chapin JB, Normann SA, 1990. Caterpillar envenomations: a prospective study of 112 cases. Vet Hum Toxicol 32 :114–119.
-
18
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station News, 1981. U.S. Department of Agriculture/Forest Service Publication. May 1981.
-
19
Caterpillar-associated rashes in Northwest Rhode Island, 1981. Rhode Island Dis Bull 18.
-
20
Anderson JF, Furniss WE, 1983. Epidemic of urticaria associated with the first-instar larvae of the gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). J Med Entomol 20 :146–150.
-
21
Tuthill RW, Canada AT, Wilcock K, Etkind PH, O’Dell TM, Shama SK, 1984. An epidemiologic study of gypsy moth rash. Am J Public Health 74 :799–803.
-
22
Frahia Neto H, Ballarini AJ, Leao RNQ, 1986. Sindrome hemorrhagica por contato com larvas de mariposa (Lepidoptera, Saturniidae). Instituto Evandro Chagas: 50 anos de contribuicao asciencias biologicas e a medicina tropical. Belem Fundacao Servicos Sanda Publica 2 :811–820.
-
23
Duarte AC, Crusius PS, Pires CAL, Schilling MA, Fan HW, 1996. Intracerebral hemorrhage after contact with Lonomia caterpillars. Lancet 348 :1033.
-
24
da Silva WD, Rocha Campos AC, Goncalves LRC, Sousa E, Silva MC, Higashi HG, Yamagushi IK, Kelen EMA, 1996. Development of an antivenom against Lonomia obliqua caterpillars. Toxicon 34 :1045–1049.
-
25
Rocha-Campos AC, Goncalves LR, Higashi HG, Yamagushi IK, Fernandes I, Olivera JE, Ribela MT, Sousa-E-Silva MC, da Silva WD, 2001. Specific heterologous F(ab′)2 antibodies revert blood incompatibility from envenoming by Lonomia obliqua caterpillars. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :283–289.
-
26
Coll-Sangrona E, Arocha-Piñango CL, 1998. Fibrinolytic action on fresh human clots of whole body extracts and two semipurified fractions from Lonomia achelous caterpillar. Braz J Med Biol Res 31 :779–784.
-
27
Ziprowski L, Hofski E, Tahori AS, 1959. Caterpillar dermatitis. Isr Med J 18 :26–31.
-
28
Pitetti RD, Kuspis D, Krenzelok EP, 1999. Caterpillars: an unusual source of ingestion. Pediatr Emerg Care 15 :33–36.
-
29
Balit CR, Ptolemy HC, Geary MJ, Russell RC, Isbister GK, 2001. Outbreak of caterpillar dermatitis caused by airborne hairs of the mistletoe browntail moth (Euproctis edwardsii). Med J Aust 175 :641–643.
-
30
Maier H, Spiegel W, Kinaciyan T, Krehan H, Cabaj A, Schopf A, Hönigsmann H, 2003. The oak processionary caterpillar as the cause of an epidemic of airborne disease: survey and analysis. Br J Dermatol 149 :990–997.
-
31
Hanyang Anti-Epidemic Station, 1976. Initial report on destruction of bones and joints by caterpillars. Hubei Med J 4 :32.
-
32
Dezhou H, 1991. Dendrolimiasis: an analysis of 58 cases. J Trop Med Hyg 94 :79–87.
-
33
Goddard J, 2003. Physicians’ Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance. Fourth edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 137–138.
-
34
Lamy M, Werno J, 1989. The brown-tail moth of Bombyx Euproctis chrysorrhoea L. (Lepidoptera) responsible for Lepidopterism in France: biological interpretation. C R Acad Sci III 309 :605–610.
-
35
Xiao H, 1979. Radiographic changes in bone and joint in 244 cases of pine caterpillars’ disease. Chin J Radiol 13 :193–196.
-
36
Tang LL, 1983. Nursing of patients with pine caterpillars’ disease. Chin J Nurs 18 :85–87.
-
37
Cadera W, Pachtman MA, Fountain JA, 1984. Ocular lesions caused by caterpillar hairs (ophthalmia nodosa). Can J Ophthalmol 19 :40–44.
-
38
Blaikie AJ, Ellis J, Sanders R, MacEwen CJ, 1997. Eye disease associated with handling pet tarantulas: three case reports. BMJ 314 :1524–1525.
-
39
Allen VT, Miller OF III, Tyler WB, 1991. Gypsy moth caterpillar-revisited. J Am Acad Dermatol 24 :979–981.
-
40
Werno J, Lamy M, 1991. Urticating hairs of “brown-tail” moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea L.) (Lepidoptera): preliminary studies in urban and laboratory. C R Acad Sci III 312 :455–459.
-
41
de Jong MC, Kawamoto F, Bleumink E, Kloosterhuis AJ, Meijer GT, 1982. A comparative study of the venom of Euproctis caterpillars. Toxicon 20 :477–485.
-
42
Goddard J, 1995. Stings from puss caterpillars (letter). Am Fam Phys 52 :86.
-
43
Pinson RT, Morgan JA, 1991. Envenomation by the puss caterpillar (Megalopyge opercularis). Ann Emerg Med 20 :562–564.
-
44
Neustater BR, Stollman NH, Manten HD, 1996. Sting of the puss caterpillar: an unusual cause of abdominal pain. South Med J 89 :826–827.
-
45
McMillan JP, Purcell W, 1964. Hazards to health: the puss caterpillar alias wooly slug. N Engl J Med 271 :147–149.
-
46
Burdmann EA, Antunes J, Saldanha LB, Abdulkader RC, 1996. Severe acute renal failure induced by the venom of Lonomia caterpillars. Clin Nephrol 46 :337–339.
-
47
Donato JL, Moreno RA, Hyslop S, Duarte A, Antunes E, Le Bonniec BF, Rendu F, de Nucci G, 1998. Lonomia obliqua caterpillar spicules trigger human blood coagulation via factor X and prothrombin. Thromb Hemost 79 :539–542.
-
48
Zannin M, Lourenco DM, Motta G, Dalla Costa LR, Grando M, Gamborgi GP, Noguti MA, Chudzinski-Tavassi AM, 2003. Blood coagulation and fibrinolytic factors in 105 patients with hemorrhagic syndrome caused by accidental contact with Lonomia obliqua caterpillar in Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Thromb Hemost 89 :355–364.
-
49
Fan HW, Cardoso JL, Olmos RD, Almeida FJ, Viana RP, Martinez AP, 1998. Hemorrhagic syndrome and acute renal failure in a pregnant woman after contact with Lonomia caterpillars: a case report. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 40 :119–120.
-
50
Bessler E, Bildner E, Yassur Y, 1987. Thaumetopoea wilkinsonii (toxic pine caterpillars) blepharoconjunctivitis. Am J Ophthalmol 103 :117–118.
-
51
Lamy M, Pastureaud MH, Novak F, Ducombs G, Vincendeau P, Maleville J, Texier L, 1986. Thaumetopoein: an urticating protein from the hairs and integument of the pine processionary caterpillar (Thaumetopoea pityocampa). Toxicon 24 :347–356.
-
52
Werno J, Lamy M, Vincendeau P, 1993. Caterpillar hairs as allergens. Lancet 342 :936–937.
-
53
Moneo I, Vega JM, Caballero J, Vega J, Alday E, 2003. Isolation and characterization of Tha p 1, a major allergen from the pine processionary caterpillar (Thaumetopoea pityocampa). Allergy 58 :34–37.
-
54
Hered RW, Abbot G, Spaulding AG, Sanitato JJ, Wander AH, 1988. Ophthalmia nodosa caused by tarantula hairs. Ophthalmology 95 :166–169.
-
55
Hung JCC, Pecker CO, Wild NJ, 1996. Tarantula eyes. Arch Dis Child 75 :462–463.
-
56
Belyea DA, Tuman DC, Ward TP, Babonis TR, 1998. The red eye revisited: ophthalmia nodosa due to tarantula hairs. South Med J 91 :565–566.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1063 | 615 | 58 |
| Full Text Views | 808 | 20 | 7 |
| PDF Downloads | 492 | 24 | 3 |