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1
Komar N, 2003. West Nile virus: Epidemiology and ecology in North America. Adv Vir Res 61 :185–234.
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Malkinson M, Banet C, Weisman Y, Pokamunski S, King R, Drouet MT, Deubel V, 2002. Introduction of West Nile virus in the Middle East by migrating white storks. Emerg Infect Dis 8 :392–397.
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Eidson M, Komar N, Sorhage F, Nelson R, Talbot T, Mostashari F, McLean R, West Nile Virus Avian Mortality Surveillance Group, 2001. Crow deaths as a sentinel surveillance system for West Nile virus in the northeastern United States, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :615–620.
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Work TH, Hurlbut HS, Taylor RM, 1955. Indigenous wild birds of the Nile Delta as potential West Nile circulating reservoirs. Am J Trop Med Hyg 4 :872–878.
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Komar N, Panella NA, Burns JE, Dusza SW, Mascarenhas TM, Talbot TO, 2001. Serologic evidence for West Nile virus infection in birds in the New York City vicinity during an outbreak in 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :621–625.
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Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, Davis B, Bowen R, Bunning M, 2003. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 9 :311–322.
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Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT, Deubel V, Smith J, Parker M, Steele K, Crise B, Volpe KE, Crabtree MB, Scherret JH, Hall RA, MacKenzie JS, Cropp CB, Panigrahy B, Ostlund E, Schmitt B, Malkinson M, Banet C, Weissman J, Komar N, Savage HM, Stone W, McNamara T, Gubler DJ, 1999. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 286 :2333–2337.
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Miller BR, Nasci RS, Godsey MS, Savage HM, Lutwama JJ, Lanciotti RS, Peters CJ, 2000. First field evidence for natural vertical transmission of West Nile virus in Culex univittatus complex mosquitoes from Rift Valley Province, Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62 :240–246.
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Lanciotti RS, Ebel GD, Deubel V, Kerst AJ, Murri S, Meyer R, Bowen M, McKinney N, Morrill WE, Crabtree MB, Kramer LD, Roehrig JT, 2002. Complete genome sequences and phylogenetic analysis of West Nile virus strains isolated from the United States, Europe, and the Middle East. Virology 298 :96–105.
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Charrel RN, Brault AC, Gallian P, Lemasson JJ, Murgue B, Murri S, Pastorino B, Zeller H, de Chesse R, de Micco P, de Lamballerie X, 2003. Evolutionary relationship between Old World West Nile virus strains. Evidence for viral gene flow between Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. Virology 315 :381–388.
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Scherret JH, Poidinger M, Mackenzie JS, Broom AK, Deubel V, Lipkin WI, Briese T, Gould EA, Hall RA, 2001. The relationship between West Nile and Kunjin viruses. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :697–705.
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Beasley DW, Li L, Suderman MT, Barrett AD, 2001. West Nile virus strains differ in mouse neurovirulence and binding to mouse or human brain membrane receptor preparations. Ann N Y Acad Sci 951 :332–335.
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Brault AC, Langevin SA, Bowen RA, Panella NA, Biggerstaff B, Miller BR, Komar N, 2004. West Nile viral strains exhibit differential virulence for American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos). Emerg Infect Dis 10: (in press).
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Hayes CG, 2001. West Nile virus: Uganda, 1937, to New York City, 1999. Ann N Y Acad Sci 951 :25–37.
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Eidson M, Kramer L, Stone W, Hagiwara Y, Schmit K, New York State West Nile Virus Avian Surveillance Team, 2001. Dead bird surveillance as an early warning system for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :631–635.
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Eidson M, Miller J, Kramer L, Cherry B, Hagiwara Y, West Nile Virus Bird Mortality Analysis Group, 2001. Dead crow densities and human cases of West Nile virus, New York State, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :662–664.
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Julian KG, Eidson M, Kipp AM, Weiss E, Petersen LR, Miller JR, Hinten SR, Marfin AA, 2002. Early season crow mortality as a sentinel for West Nile virus disease in humans, northeastern United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2 :145–155.
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Mostashari F, Kulldorff M, Hartman JJ, Miller JR, Kulasekera V, 2003. Dead bird clusters as an early warning system for West Nile virus activity. Emerg Infect Dis 9 :641–646.
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Guptill SC, Julian KG, Campbell GL, Price SD, Marfin AA, 2003. Early-season avian deaths from West Nile virus as warnings of human infection. Emerg Infect Dis 9 :483–484.
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Theophilides CN, Ahearn SC, Grady S, Merlino M, 2003. Identifying West Nile virus risk areas: the Dynamic Continuous-Area Space-Time system. Am J Epidemiol 157 :843–854.
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VARIATION IN VIRULENCE OF WEST NILE VIRUS STRAINS FOR HOUSE SPARROWS (PASSER DOMESTICUS)
The observation of avian mortality associated with West Nile virus (WNV) infection has become a hallmark epidemiologic feature in the recent emergence of this pathogen in Israel and North America. To determine if phenotypic differences exist among different WNV isolates, we exposed house sparrows (Passer domesticus) to low passage, lineage 1 WNV strains from North America (NY99), Kenya (KEN), and Australia (KUN; also known as Kunjin virus). House sparrows inoculated with the NY99 and KEN strains experienced similar mortality rates and viremia profiles. The KUN strain elicited significantly lower-titered viremia when compared with the other strains and induced no mortality. This study suggests that natural mortality in house sparrows due to Old World strains of WNV may be occurring where the KEN strain occurs.