Author:
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
WHO/FRH/MSM/96.7, 1996 Perinatal Mortality: A Listing of Available Information. Maternal Health and Safe Motherhood Program. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2
Weiner R, Ronsmans C, Dorman E, Jilo H, Muhoro A, Shulman C, 2003. Labour complications remain the most important risk factors for perinatal mortality in rural Kenya. Bull World Health Organ 81 :561–566.
-
3
Shulman CE, Dorman EK, 2003. Reducing childhood mortality in poor countries—Importance and prevention of malaria in pregnancy. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97 :30–35.
-
4
McGregor IA, Wilson ME, Billewicz WZ, 1983. Malaria infection of the placenta in The Gambia, west Africa; its incidence and relationship to stillbirth, birthweight and placental weight. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 77 :232–244.
-
5
Brabin BJ, 1983. An analysis of malaria in pregnancy in Africa. Bull World Health Organ 61 :1005–1016.
-
6
Nosten F, McGready R, Simpson JA, Thwai KL, Balkan S, Cho T, 1999. Effects of Plasmodium vivax malaria in pregnancy. Lancet 354 :546–549.
-
7
Blacklock DB, Gordon RM, 1925. Malaria infection as it occurs in late pregnancy; its relationship to labour and early infancy. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 19 :327–365.
-
8
Bruce-Chwatt LJ, 1952. Malaria in African infants and children in southern Nigeria. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 46 :173–200.
-
9
Archibald HM, 1956. The influence of malaria infection of the placenta on the incidence of prematurity. Bull World Health Organ 15 :842–845.
-
10
Spitz AJW, 1959. Malaria infection of the placenta and its influence on the incidence of prematurity in eastern Nigeria. Bull World Health Organ 21 :242–244.
-
11
McLaren DS, Ward PG, 1962. Malaria infection of the placenta and foetal nutrition. East Afr Med J 39 :182–189.
-
12
Jelliffe EFP, 1968. Low birth weight and malarial infection of the placenta. Bull World Health Organ 38 :69–78.
-
13
Reinhardt MC, Ambroise-Thomas P, Cavallo-Serra R, Meylan C, Gautier R, 1978. Malaria at delivery in Abidjan. Helv Paediatr Acta 33 :65–84.
-
14
Connor DSH, 1958. Malaria and prematurity in the western region of Nigeria. BMJ 2 :877–878.
-
15
Newman RD, Parise ME, Slutsker L, Nahlen B, Steketee RW, 2003. Safety, efficacy and determinants of effectiveness of antimalarial drugs during pregnancy: implications for prevention programmes in Plasmodium falciparum-endemic sub-Saharan Africa. Trop Med Int Health 8 :488–506.
-
16
Kramer MS, 1987. Determinants of low birth weight: methodological assessment and meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ 65 :663–737.
-
17
McCormick M-C, 1985. The contribution of low birth weight to infant mortality and childhood morbidity. N Engl J Med 312 :82–90.
-
18
Murphy SC, Breman JG, 2001. Gaps in the childhood malaria burden in Africa: cerebral malaria, neurological sequelae, anemia, respiratory distress, hypoglycemia, and complications of pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :57–67.
-
19
Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise ME, Menendez C, 2001. The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :28–35.
-
20
Bruce-Chwatt LJ, 1983. Malaria and pregnancy. BMJ 286 :63–76.
-
21
Greenwood AM, Menendez C, Todd J, Greenwood BM, 1994. The distribution of birth weights in Gambian women who received malaria chemoprophylaxis during their first pregnancy and in control women. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :311–312.
-
22
Menendez C, Todd J, Alonso PL, Francis N, Lulat S, Ceesay S, 1994. The effects of iron supplementation during pregnancy, given by traditional birth attendants, on the prevalence of anaemia and malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :590–593.
-
23
UNDP, Rapport Mondial sur le Dévelopement Humain 2002, 2003. Electronic citation.
-
24
Snow RW, Craig M, Deichmann U, Marsh K, 1999. Estimating mortality, morbidity and disability due to malaria among Africa’s non-pregnant population. Bull World Health Organ 77 :624–640.
-
25
Nyirjesy P, Kavasya T, Axelrod P, Fischer PR, 1993. Malaria during pregnancy: neonatal morbidity and mortality and the efficacy of chloroquine chemoprophylaxis. Clin Infect Dis 16 :127–132.
-
26
Cohn LD, Becker BJ, 2003. How meta-analysis increases statistical power. Psychol Methods 8 :243–253.
-
27
Higgins JP, Thompson SG, 2002. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med 21 :1539–1558.
-
28
Tabutin D, Eliwo A, 1980. Socio-economic and cultural differentials in the mortality of sub-Saharan Africa. van de Walle E, Pison G, Sala-Diakanda M, eds. Mortality and Society in Sub-Saharan Africa. Oxford, United Kingdom: Clarendon Press, 35–61.
-
29
D’Alessandro U, Langerock P, Bennett S, Francis N, Cham K, Greenwood BM, 1996. The impact of a national impregnated bed net programme on the outcome of pregnancy in primigravidae in The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 90 :487–492.
-
30
Sachs J, 2003. Economic Analyses Indicate that the Burden of Malaria is Great. Economics of Malaria Executive Summary. Cambridge: Center for International Development, Harvard University and London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
-
31
Barros F-C, Victora C-G, Vaughan J-P, Estanislau H-J, 1987. Perinatal mortality in southern Brazil: a population-based study of 7,392 births. Bull World Health Organ 65 :95–104.
-
32
Guildea ZE, Fone DL, Dunstan FD, Sibert JR, Cartlidge PH, 2001. Social deprivation and the causes of stillbirth and infant mortality. Arch Dis Child 84 :307–310.
-
33
Naidu J, Moodley M, Adhikari R, Ramsaroop N, Morar OO, Dunmoye S, 2001. Clinico-pathological study of causes of perinatal mortality in a developing country. J Obstet Gynaecol 21 :443–447.
-
34
Richardus JH, Graafmans WC, Verloove-Vanhoorick SP, Mack-enbach JP; The Euronatal Audit Panel; The Euronatal Working Group, 2003. Differences in perinatal mortality and suboptimal care between 10 European regions: results of an international audit. BJOG 11 :97–102.
-
35
Menon R, 1972. Pregnancy and malaria. Med J Mal 27 :115–119.
-
36
van Hung L, 1951. Paludisme et grossesse à Saïgon. Rev Pal Med Trop 83 :75.
-
37
Nosten F, 1991. Malaria during pregnancy in an area of unstable endemicity. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 85 :424–429.
-
38
Schwetz J, Peel E, 1934. Congenital malaria and placental infections amongst the Negroes of central Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 28 :167–174.
-
39
Peel E, van Hoof L, 1948. Le paludisme à la maternité indigène de Léopoldville. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 28 :413–420.
-
40
Steketee RW, Wirima JJ, Slutsker L, Breman JG, Heymann DL, 1996. Comparability of treatment groups and risk factors for parasitemia at the first antenatal clinic visit in a study of malaria treatment and prevention in pregnancy in rural Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55 (Suppl 1):17–23.
-
41
Garner P, Gulmezoglu AM, 2003. Drugs for preventing malaria-related illness in pregnant women and death in the newborn. Cochrane Data System Rev 1: CD000169.
-
42
Anagnos D, Lanoie LO, Palmieri JR, 1986. Effects of placental malaria on mothers and neonates from Zaire. Z Parasitol 72 :57–64.
-
43
Geelhoed DW, Visser LE, Addae V, Asare K, Schagen van Leeuwen JH, van Roosmalen J, 2001. Malaria prophylaxis and the reduction of anemia at childbirth. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 74 :133–138.
-
44
Lefait JF, Seixas J, Tavora Tavira L, Alves F, Alves A, 1999. Infection palustre à la maternité de Bissau (Guinée-Bissau), parasitémie maternelle, placentaire et néonatale en début de saison des pluies. Med Afr Noire 46 :93–98.
-
45
Voorhoeve AM, Muller AS, W’oigo H, 1979. Machakos Project Studies: agents affecting health of mother and child in a rural area of Kenya. XVI. The outcome of pregnancy. Trop Geogr Med 31 :607–627.
-
46
Kulmala T, Vaahtera M, Ndekha M, Koivisto AM, Cullinan T, Salin ML, Ashorn P, 2000. The importance of preterm births for peri- and neonatal mortality in rural Malawi. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 14 :219–226.
-
47
McDermott JM, Steketee R, Wirima J, 1996. Perinatal mortality in rural Malawi. Bull World Health Organ 74 :165–171.
-
48
Sule-Odu AO, Ogunledun A, Olatunji AO, 2002. Impact of asymptomatic maternal malaria parasitaemia at parturition on perinatal outcome. J Obstet Gynaecol 22 :25–28.
-
49
Lamikanra OT, 1993. A study of malaria parasitaemia in pregnant women, placentae, cord blood and newborn babies in Lagos, Nigeria. West Afr J Med 12 :213–217.
-
50
Hodges M, Williams RA, 1998. Registered infant and under-five deaths in Freetown, Sierra Leone from 1987–1991 and a comparison with 1969–1979. West Afr J Med 17 :95–98.
-
51
Woodruff AW, Adamson EA, El Suni A, Maughan TS, Kaku M, Bundru N, 1983. Infants in Juba, southern Sudan: the first six months of life. Lancet 2 :262–264.
-
52
Jamieson DJ, Meikle SF, Hillis SD, Mtsuko D, Mawji S, Duerr A, 2000. An evaluation of poor pregnancy outcomes among Burundian refugees in Tanzania. JAMA 283 :397–402.
-
53
Matteelli A, Donato F, Shein A, 1996. Malarial infection and birthweight in urban Zanzibar, Tanzania. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 90 :125–134.
-
54
Walraven GE, Mkanje RJ, van Roosmalen J, van Dongen PW, Dolmans WM, 1994. Comparison of perinatal outcome in rural Tanzania as obtained from a prospective community-based survey and hospital data. Trop Geogr Med 46 :11–13.
-
55
Okoko BJ, Ota MO, Yamuah LK, Idiong D, Mkpanam SN, Avieka A, Banya WA, Osinusi K, 2002. Influence of placental malaria infection on foetal outcome in the Gambia: twenty years after Ian Mcgregor. J Health Popul Nutr 20 :4–11.
-
56
Greenwood AM, Greenwood BM, Bradley AK, Williams K, Shenton FC, Tulloch S, Byass P, Oldfield FSJ, 1987. A prospective survey of the outcome of pregnancy in a rural area of the Gambia. Bull World Health Organ 65 :635–643.
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Ndyomugyenyi R, Magnussen P, 2001. Malaria morbidity, mortality and pregnancy outcome in areas with different levels of malaria transmission in Uganda: a hospital record- based study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :463–468.
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Kasumba IN, Nalunkuma AJ, Mujuzi G, Kitaka FS, Byaruhanga R, Okong P, Egwang TG, 2000. Low birthweight associated with maternal anaemia and Plasmodium falciparum infection during pregnancy, in a peri-urban/urban area of low endemicity in Uganda. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 94 :7–13.
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Singh N, Mehra RK, Srivastava N, 2001. Malaria during pregnancy and infancy, in an area of intense malaria transmission in central India. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 95 :19–29.
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McGready R, Cho T, Keo NK, Thwai KL, Villegas L, Looaree-suwan S, White NJ, Nosten F, 2001. Artemisinin antimalarials in pregnancy: a prospective treatment study of 539 episodes of multidrug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum.Clin Infect Dis 33 :2009–2016.
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Philippe E, Gass R, Gendrel D, Zinsou RD, Walter P, Ivanoff B, Lasalle Y, Blot P, 1984. The placenta of premature and hypotrophic Gabonese infants. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris) 13 :515–519.
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THE CONTRIBUTION OF MALARIA IN PREGNANCY TO PERINATAL MORTALITY
JEAN-PIERRE VAN GEERTRUYDEN
JEAN-PIERRE VAN GEERTRUYDEN
Department of Parasitology, Prince Leopold Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
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FLORENCE THOMAS
FLORENCE THOMAS
Department of Parasitology, Prince Leopold Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
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ANNETTE ERHART
ANNETTE ERHART
Department of Parasitology, Prince Leopold Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
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UMBERTO D’ALESSANDRO
UMBERTO D’ALESSANDRO
Department of Parasitology, Prince Leopold Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
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The link between malaria and perinatal mortality was explored by systematically reviewing 117 studies published between 1948 and 2002. The mean perinatal mortality rate was higher in malaria endemic countries (61.1/1,000, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 52.1–70.1) than in non-endemic countries (25.8/1,000, 95% CI = 21.1–30.6). Similarly, the fetal mortality rate was higher in endemic countries (40.1/1,000, 95% CI = 32.1–48.0) than in non-endemic countries (20.0/1,000, 95% CI = 13.2–26.8) countries. Considering that perinatal mortality is an important indicator of obstetric care quality and socioeconomic development, further analysis was restricted to countries with a human development index between 500 and 800. In this category, the perinatal mortality rate was also significantly higher in endemic countries (50.5/1,000, 95% CI = 35.5–65.5) than in non-endemic countries (30.0/1,000, 95% CI = 25.7–34.3). In some publications, the occurrence of placental malaria and stillbirth was available. Placental malaria was significantly associated with a higher risk for stillbirth, regardless of parity (odds ratio = 2.19, 95% CI = 1.49–3.22, P < 0.001). Despite the limitations involved in this kind of review, all information found indicates that in endemic countries, malaria is an important determinant of perinatal mortality. Preventive measures such as intermittent preventive treatment or insecticide-treated bed nets could substantially reduce perinatal mortality and fetal wastage.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
WHO/FRH/MSM/96.7, 1996 Perinatal Mortality: A Listing of Available Information. Maternal Health and Safe Motherhood Program. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2
Weiner R, Ronsmans C, Dorman E, Jilo H, Muhoro A, Shulman C, 2003. Labour complications remain the most important risk factors for perinatal mortality in rural Kenya. Bull World Health Organ 81 :561–566.
-
3
Shulman CE, Dorman EK, 2003. Reducing childhood mortality in poor countries—Importance and prevention of malaria in pregnancy. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97 :30–35.
-
4
McGregor IA, Wilson ME, Billewicz WZ, 1983. Malaria infection of the placenta in The Gambia, west Africa; its incidence and relationship to stillbirth, birthweight and placental weight. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 77 :232–244.
-
5
Brabin BJ, 1983. An analysis of malaria in pregnancy in Africa. Bull World Health Organ 61 :1005–1016.
-
6
Nosten F, McGready R, Simpson JA, Thwai KL, Balkan S, Cho T, 1999. Effects of Plasmodium vivax malaria in pregnancy. Lancet 354 :546–549.
-
7
Blacklock DB, Gordon RM, 1925. Malaria infection as it occurs in late pregnancy; its relationship to labour and early infancy. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 19 :327–365.
-
8
Bruce-Chwatt LJ, 1952. Malaria in African infants and children in southern Nigeria. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 46 :173–200.
-
9
Archibald HM, 1956. The influence of malaria infection of the placenta on the incidence of prematurity. Bull World Health Organ 15 :842–845.
-
10
Spitz AJW, 1959. Malaria infection of the placenta and its influence on the incidence of prematurity in eastern Nigeria. Bull World Health Organ 21 :242–244.
-
11
McLaren DS, Ward PG, 1962. Malaria infection of the placenta and foetal nutrition. East Afr Med J 39 :182–189.
-
12
Jelliffe EFP, 1968. Low birth weight and malarial infection of the placenta. Bull World Health Organ 38 :69–78.
-
13
Reinhardt MC, Ambroise-Thomas P, Cavallo-Serra R, Meylan C, Gautier R, 1978. Malaria at delivery in Abidjan. Helv Paediatr Acta 33 :65–84.
-
14
Connor DSH, 1958. Malaria and prematurity in the western region of Nigeria. BMJ 2 :877–878.
-
15
Newman RD, Parise ME, Slutsker L, Nahlen B, Steketee RW, 2003. Safety, efficacy and determinants of effectiveness of antimalarial drugs during pregnancy: implications for prevention programmes in Plasmodium falciparum-endemic sub-Saharan Africa. Trop Med Int Health 8 :488–506.
-
16
Kramer MS, 1987. Determinants of low birth weight: methodological assessment and meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ 65 :663–737.
-
17
McCormick M-C, 1985. The contribution of low birth weight to infant mortality and childhood morbidity. N Engl J Med 312 :82–90.
-
18
Murphy SC, Breman JG, 2001. Gaps in the childhood malaria burden in Africa: cerebral malaria, neurological sequelae, anemia, respiratory distress, hypoglycemia, and complications of pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :57–67.
-
19
Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise ME, Menendez C, 2001. The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :28–35.
-
20
Bruce-Chwatt LJ, 1983. Malaria and pregnancy. BMJ 286 :63–76.
-
21
Greenwood AM, Menendez C, Todd J, Greenwood BM, 1994. The distribution of birth weights in Gambian women who received malaria chemoprophylaxis during their first pregnancy and in control women. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :311–312.
-
22
Menendez C, Todd J, Alonso PL, Francis N, Lulat S, Ceesay S, 1994. The effects of iron supplementation during pregnancy, given by traditional birth attendants, on the prevalence of anaemia and malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :590–593.
-
23
UNDP, Rapport Mondial sur le Dévelopement Humain 2002, 2003. Electronic citation.
-
24
Snow RW, Craig M, Deichmann U, Marsh K, 1999. Estimating mortality, morbidity and disability due to malaria among Africa’s non-pregnant population. Bull World Health Organ 77 :624–640.
-
25
Nyirjesy P, Kavasya T, Axelrod P, Fischer PR, 1993. Malaria during pregnancy: neonatal morbidity and mortality and the efficacy of chloroquine chemoprophylaxis. Clin Infect Dis 16 :127–132.
-
26
Cohn LD, Becker BJ, 2003. How meta-analysis increases statistical power. Psychol Methods 8 :243–253.
-
27
Higgins JP, Thompson SG, 2002. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med 21 :1539–1558.
-
28
Tabutin D, Eliwo A, 1980. Socio-economic and cultural differentials in the mortality of sub-Saharan Africa. van de Walle E, Pison G, Sala-Diakanda M, eds. Mortality and Society in Sub-Saharan Africa. Oxford, United Kingdom: Clarendon Press, 35–61.
-
29
D’Alessandro U, Langerock P, Bennett S, Francis N, Cham K, Greenwood BM, 1996. The impact of a national impregnated bed net programme on the outcome of pregnancy in primigravidae in The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 90 :487–492.
-
30
Sachs J, 2003. Economic Analyses Indicate that the Burden of Malaria is Great. Economics of Malaria Executive Summary. Cambridge: Center for International Development, Harvard University and London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
-
31
Barros F-C, Victora C-G, Vaughan J-P, Estanislau H-J, 1987. Perinatal mortality in southern Brazil: a population-based study of 7,392 births. Bull World Health Organ 65 :95–104.
-
32
Guildea ZE, Fone DL, Dunstan FD, Sibert JR, Cartlidge PH, 2001. Social deprivation and the causes of stillbirth and infant mortality. Arch Dis Child 84 :307–310.
-
33
Naidu J, Moodley M, Adhikari R, Ramsaroop N, Morar OO, Dunmoye S, 2001. Clinico-pathological study of causes of perinatal mortality in a developing country. J Obstet Gynaecol 21 :443–447.
-
34
Richardus JH, Graafmans WC, Verloove-Vanhoorick SP, Mack-enbach JP; The Euronatal Audit Panel; The Euronatal Working Group, 2003. Differences in perinatal mortality and suboptimal care between 10 European regions: results of an international audit. BJOG 11 :97–102.
-
35
Menon R, 1972. Pregnancy and malaria. Med J Mal 27 :115–119.
-
36
van Hung L, 1951. Paludisme et grossesse à Saïgon. Rev Pal Med Trop 83 :75.
-
37
Nosten F, 1991. Malaria during pregnancy in an area of unstable endemicity. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 85 :424–429.
-
38
Schwetz J, Peel E, 1934. Congenital malaria and placental infections amongst the Negroes of central Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 28 :167–174.
-
39
Peel E, van Hoof L, 1948. Le paludisme à la maternité indigène de Léopoldville. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 28 :413–420.
-
40
Steketee RW, Wirima JJ, Slutsker L, Breman JG, Heymann DL, 1996. Comparability of treatment groups and risk factors for parasitemia at the first antenatal clinic visit in a study of malaria treatment and prevention in pregnancy in rural Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55 (Suppl 1):17–23.
-
41
Garner P, Gulmezoglu AM, 2003. Drugs for preventing malaria-related illness in pregnant women and death in the newborn. Cochrane Data System Rev 1: CD000169.
-
42
Anagnos D, Lanoie LO, Palmieri JR, 1986. Effects of placental malaria on mothers and neonates from Zaire. Z Parasitol 72 :57–64.
-
43
Geelhoed DW, Visser LE, Addae V, Asare K, Schagen van Leeuwen JH, van Roosmalen J, 2001. Malaria prophylaxis and the reduction of anemia at childbirth. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 74 :133–138.
-
44
Lefait JF, Seixas J, Tavora Tavira L, Alves F, Alves A, 1999. Infection palustre à la maternité de Bissau (Guinée-Bissau), parasitémie maternelle, placentaire et néonatale en début de saison des pluies. Med Afr Noire 46 :93–98.
-
45
Voorhoeve AM, Muller AS, W’oigo H, 1979. Machakos Project Studies: agents affecting health of mother and child in a rural area of Kenya. XVI. The outcome of pregnancy. Trop Geogr Med 31 :607–627.
-
46
Kulmala T, Vaahtera M, Ndekha M, Koivisto AM, Cullinan T, Salin ML, Ashorn P, 2000. The importance of preterm births for peri- and neonatal mortality in rural Malawi. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 14 :219–226.
-
47
McDermott JM, Steketee R, Wirima J, 1996. Perinatal mortality in rural Malawi. Bull World Health Organ 74 :165–171.
-
48
Sule-Odu AO, Ogunledun A, Olatunji AO, 2002. Impact of asymptomatic maternal malaria parasitaemia at parturition on perinatal outcome. J Obstet Gynaecol 22 :25–28.
-
49
Lamikanra OT, 1993. A study of malaria parasitaemia in pregnant women, placentae, cord blood and newborn babies in Lagos, Nigeria. West Afr J Med 12 :213–217.
-
50
Hodges M, Williams RA, 1998. Registered infant and under-five deaths in Freetown, Sierra Leone from 1987–1991 and a comparison with 1969–1979. West Afr J Med 17 :95–98.
-
51
Woodruff AW, Adamson EA, El Suni A, Maughan TS, Kaku M, Bundru N, 1983. Infants in Juba, southern Sudan: the first six months of life. Lancet 2 :262–264.
-
52
Jamieson DJ, Meikle SF, Hillis SD, Mtsuko D, Mawji S, Duerr A, 2000. An evaluation of poor pregnancy outcomes among Burundian refugees in Tanzania. JAMA 283 :397–402.
-
53
Matteelli A, Donato F, Shein A, 1996. Malarial infection and birthweight in urban Zanzibar, Tanzania. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 90 :125–134.
-
54
Walraven GE, Mkanje RJ, van Roosmalen J, van Dongen PW, Dolmans WM, 1994. Comparison of perinatal outcome in rural Tanzania as obtained from a prospective community-based survey and hospital data. Trop Geogr Med 46 :11–13.
-
55
Okoko BJ, Ota MO, Yamuah LK, Idiong D, Mkpanam SN, Avieka A, Banya WA, Osinusi K, 2002. Influence of placental malaria infection on foetal outcome in the Gambia: twenty years after Ian Mcgregor. J Health Popul Nutr 20 :4–11.
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