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1
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MALARIA TRANSMISSION IN URBAN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
VINCENT ROBERT
VINCENT ROBERT
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France; Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Madagascar; Department of International Health and Development, and Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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KATE MACINTYRE
KATE MACINTYRE
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France; Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Madagascar; Department of International Health and Development, and Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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JOSEPH KEATING
JOSEPH KEATING
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France; Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Madagascar; Department of International Health and Development, and Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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JEAN-FRANCOIS TRAPE
JEAN-FRANCOIS TRAPE
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France; Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Madagascar; Department of International Health and Development, and Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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JEAN-BERNARD DUCHEMIN
JEAN-BERNARD DUCHEMIN
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France; Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Madagascar; Department of International Health and Development, and Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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MCWILSON WARREN
MCWILSON WARREN
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France; Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Madagascar; Department of International Health and Development, and Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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JOHN C. BEIER
JOHN C. BEIER
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France; Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Madagascar; Department of International Health and Development, and Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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The rapid increase in the world’s urban population has major implications for the epidemiology of malaria. A review of malaria transmission in sub-Saharan African cities shows the strong likelihood of transmission occurring within these sprawling cities, whatever the size or characteristics of their bioecologic environment. A meta-analysis of results from studies of malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa shows a loose linear negative relationship between mean annual entomologic inoculation rates (EIR) and the level of urbanicity. Few studies have failed to find entomologic evidence of some transmission. Our results show mean annual EIRs of 7.1 in the city centers, 45.8 in periurban areas, and 167.7 in rural areas. The impact of urbanization in reducing transmission is more marked in areas where the mean rainfall is low and seasonal. Considerable variation in the level of transmission exists among cities and within different districts in the same city. This article presents evidence from past literature to build a conceptual framework to begin to explain this heterogeneity. The potential for malaria epidemics owing to decreasing levels of natural immunity may be offset by negative impacts of urbanization on the larval ecology of anopheline mosquitoes. Malaria control in urban environments may be simpler as a result of urbanization; however, much of what we know about malaria transmission in rural environments might not hold in the urban context.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Lines J, Harpham T, Leake C, Schofield C, 1994. Trends, priorities and policy directions in the control of vector-borne diseases in urban environments. Health Policy Planning 9 :113–129.
-
2
Warren M, Billig P, Bendahmane D, Wijeyaratne P, 1999. Malaria in Urban and Peri-Urban areas in Sub Saharan Africa. Environmental Health Project Activity, Report no. 71. Washington, DC: USAID.
-
3
United Nations, 1999. World Urbanization Prospects: The 1999 Revision, Key Findings. New York: United Nations Population Division.
-
4
Trape JF, Lefebvre-Zante E, Legros F, Druilhe P, Rogier C, Bouganali H, Salem G, 1993. Malaria morbidity among children exposed to low seasonal transmission in Dakar, Senegal and its implications for malaria control in tropical Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 48 :748–756.
-
5
Imbert P, Sartelet I, Rogier C, Ka S, Baujart G, Candito D, 1997. Severe malaria among children in a low transmission area, Dakar, Senegal. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 91 :22–24.
-
6
Granja AC, Machungo F, Gomes A, Bergstrom S, Brabin B, 1998. Malaria related maternal mortality in urban Mozambique. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 52 :257–263.
-
7
Wiseman RH, Symes CB, McMahon JB, Teesdale C, 1939. Report on a malaria survey of Mombasa. Nairobi, Kenya: The Government Printer.
-
8
MacKay R, 1935. Report on work done at Dar es Salaam during 1932–1934. London: Government Printer.
-
9
Wilson DB, 1936. Report of Malaria Unit, Tanga, 1933–34. Nairobi, Kenya: The Government Printer.
-
10
Krafsur ES, 1977. The bionomics and relative prevalence of Anopheles species with respect to the transmission of Plasmodium to man in Western Ethiopia. J Med Entomol 14 :180–194.
-
11
Vercruysse J, Jancloes M, 1981. Etude entomologique sur la transmission du paludisme humain dans la zone urbaine de Pikine, Sénégal. Cah ORSTOM.Ser Ent Med Parasitol 19 :165–178.
-
12
Robert V, Gazin P, Boudin C, Molez JF, Ouedraogo V, Carnevale P, 1985. La transmission du paludisme en zone de savane arborée et en zone rizicole des environs de Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso. Ann Soc Belge Med Trop 65 (suppl 2) :201–214.
-
13
Trape JF, Zoulani A, 1987. Malaria and urbanization in Central Africa: the example of Brazzaville: Part II. Results of entomological surveys and epidemiological analysis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81 (suppl 2) :10–18.
-
14
Trape JF, 1987. Malaria and urbanization in Central Africa: the example of Brazzaville: Part I. Description of the town and review of previous surveys. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81 (suppl 2) :1–9.
-
15
Trape JF, Quinet MC, Nzingoula S, Senga P, Tchichelle F, Carme B, Candito D, Mayanda H, Zoulani A, 1987. Malaria and urbanization in Central Africa: the example of Brazzaville: Part V. Pernicious attacks and mortality. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81 (suppl 2) :34–42.
-
16
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-
17
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-
18
Knudsen AB, Slooff R, 1992. Vector borne disease problems in rapid urbanization: new approaches to vector control. Bull WHO 70 :1–6.
-
19
World Bank Development Report, 2000–2001, Attacking Poverty. Washington, DC: World Bank.
-
20
Dossou-yovo J, Doannio J, Rivière F, Duval J, 1994. Rice cultivation and malaria transmission in Bouaké city (Côte d’Ivoire). Acta Trop 57 :91–94.
-
21
Robert V, Awono-Ambene HP, Thioulouse J, 1998. Ecology of larval mosquito, with special reference to Anopheles arabiensis (Diptera: Culicidae) in market-garden wells in the urban area of Dakar, Senegal. J Med Entomol 35 :948–955.
-
22
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-
23
Thompson R, Begtrup K, Cuamba N, Dgedge M, Mendis C, Gamage-Mendis A, Enosse SM, Barreto J, Sinden RE, Hogh B, 1997. The Matola malaria project: a temporal and spatial study of malaria transmission and disease in a suburban area of Maputo, Mozambique. Am J Trop Med Hyg 57 :550–559.
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