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RefWorks
Reference Manager
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1.
Ross R, 1918. Malaria in Macedonia: Clinical and Haematological Features and Principles of Treatment. London, United Kingdom: University of London Press, Limited.
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2.
Kho S et al., 2019. High risk of Plasmodium vivax malaria following splenectomy in Papua, Indonesia. Clin Infect Dis 68: 51–60.
-
3.
Kho S et al., 2021. Hidden biomass of intact malaria parasites in the human spleen.N Engl J Med 384: 2067–2069.
-
4.
Anstey NM, Tham WH, Shanks GD, Poespoprodjo JR, Russell BM, Kho S, 2024. The biology and pathogenesis of vivax malaria. Trends Parasitol 40: 573–590.
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Markus MB, 2011. Malaria: Origin of the term “hypnozoite.” J Hist Biol 44: 781–786.
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Shanks GD, 2022. Plasmodium vivax relapse rates in allied soldiers during the Second World War: Importance of hypnozoite burden. Am J Trop Med Hyg 107: 1173–1177.
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Russell P, 1946. Lessons in malariology from World War II. Am J Trop Med Hyg 26: 5–13.
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9.
Shanks GD, White NJ, 2013. The activation of vivax malaria hypnozoites by infectious diseases. Lancet Infect Dis 13: 900–906.
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10.
Shanks GD, Waller M, 2022. Malaria relapses following parasite-free blood transfusions in the U.S. Army during the Korean War. Am J Trop Med Hyg 106: 1237–1239.
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Shanks GD, 2022. Historical 8-aminoquinoline combinations: Not all antimalarial drugs work well together. Am J Trop Med Hyg 107: 964–967.
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Fairley NH, 1946. Malaria in the South-West Pacific, with special reference to its chemotherapeutic control. Med J Aust 2: 145–162.
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Downs WG, 1946. Results in an infantry regiment of several plans of treatment for vivax malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 26: 67–86.
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Coggeshall L, 1945. Malaria and filariasis in the returning serviceman: The ninth Charles Franklin Craig Lecture. Am J Trop Med Hyg 25: 177–184.
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Boyd MF, Kitchen S, 1944. Renewed clinical activity in naturally induced vivax malaria. Am J Trop Med 24: 221–234.
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Stratman-Thomas WK, 1935. Studies on benign tertian malaria. 8. Observations on splenomegaly. Am J Hyg 21: 361–363.
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Long PH, 1963. Treatment of malaria. Coates JB Internal Medicine in World War II: Infectious Diseases. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 519.
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Gordon H, Lippincott S, Marble A, Ball A, Ellerbrook L & Glass W Jr. 1945. Clinical features of relapsing Plasmodium vivax malaria in soldiers evacuated from the South Pacific Area. Arch Intern Med (Chic) 75: 159–167.
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Blackburn CRB, 1948. Observations on the development of resistance to vivax Malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 42: 117–162.
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Hill E, Amatuzio DS, 1949. Southwest Pacific vivax malaria. Clinical features and observations concerning duration of clinical activity. Am J Trop Med 29: 203–214.
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Hunter T, 1945. Fever in a hyper-endemic malarial area: a critical analysis of 2,913 cases. Indian Med Gazette 80: 247.
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Pang LW, Limsomwong N, Boudreau EF, Singharaj P, 1987. Doxycycline prophylaxis for falciparum malaria. Lancet 1: 1161–1164.
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23.
Looareesuwan S, White NJ, Chittamas S, Bunnag D, Harinasuta T, 1987. High rate of Plasmodium vivax relapse following treatment of falciparum malaria in Thailand. Lancet 2: 1052–1055.
-
24.
Looareesuwan S, Ho M, Wattanagoon Y, White NJ, Warrell DA, Bunnag D, Harinasuta T, Wyler DJ, 1987. Dynamic alteration in splenic function during acute falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 317: 675–679.
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25.
Commons RJ, Simpson JA, Thriemer K, Hossain MS, Douglas NM, Humphreys GS, Sibley CH, Guerin PJ, Price RN, 2019. Risk of Plasmodium vivax parasitaemia after Plasmodium falciparum infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Lancet Infect Dis 19: 91–101.
-
26.
White NJ, 2011. Determinants of relapse periodicity in Plasmodium vivax malaria. Malar J 10: 297.
-
27.
Sutanto I et al., 2023. Tafenoquine co-administered with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for the radical cure of Plasmodium vivax malaria (INSPECTOR): A randomised, placebo-controlled, efficacy and safety study. Lancet Infect Dis 23: 1153–1163.
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Splenic Modulation of Plasmodium vivax Relapses and Hypnozoite Activation during the Second World War?
G. Dennis Shanks
dennis.shanks@defence.gov.au
G. Dennis Shanks
Australian Defence Force Malaria and Infectious Disease Institute, Enoggera, Australia;
School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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ABSTRACT.
Despite their colonial experience with tropical medicine, Allied (United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and India) Armies in the Indo-Pacific region were surprised by the large number of Plasmodium vivax infections in their soldiers during the Second World War. Even after the institution of effective chemoprophylaxis with quinacrine, multiple cycles of clinical relapses often occurred when months of medication was discontinued. Nearly monthly symptomatic relapses (>10) were not unusual and resulted in important manpower losses after each campaign. Retrospective consideration suggests that small splenic size was associated with the risk of recurrent clinical episodes of vivax malaria. Potential non–mutually exclusive explanations for frequent relapses of vivax malaria in soldiers are reviewed. These include decreased retention of parasitized red blood cells by small spleens through greater filtration stringency preventing relapses from becoming clinically patent; small spleen size being a marker of lower innate and/or acquired immunity, modulating the risk of clinically patent recurrences; or small spleen size increasing the number of relapses through decreased removal of triggers of hypnozoite activation. Apparent splenic modulation of vivax malaria relapses suggests a complex interaction between the parasite and host that might be amenable to manipulation to facilitate malaria elimination.
Author Notes
Disclosures: The author is an employee of the Australian Defence Force, a retired U.S. Army officer, and claims no conflicts of interest. The opinions expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Australian Defence Force or the U.S. Department of Defense.
Current contact information: G. Dennis Shanks, Australian Defence Force Infectious Disease and Malaria Institute, Enoggera, Australia, and University of Queensland, School of Public Health, Brisbane, Herston, Australia. E-mail: dennis.shanks@defence.gov.au.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Ross R, 1918. Malaria in Macedonia: Clinical and Haematological Features and Principles of Treatment. London, United Kingdom: University of London Press, Limited.
-
2.
Kho S et al., 2019. High risk of Plasmodium vivax malaria following splenectomy in Papua, Indonesia. Clin Infect Dis 68: 51–60.
-
3.
Kho S et al., 2021. Hidden biomass of intact malaria parasites in the human spleen.N Engl J Med 384: 2067–2069.
-
4.
Anstey NM, Tham WH, Shanks GD, Poespoprodjo JR, Russell BM, Kho S, 2024. The biology and pathogenesis of vivax malaria. Trends Parasitol 40: 573–590.
-
5.
Markus MB, 2011. Malaria: Origin of the term “hypnozoite.” J Hist Biol 44: 781–786.
-
6.
Walker AS, 1957. The Island Campaigns. Canberra, Australia: Australian War Memorial.
-
7.
Shanks GD, 2022. Plasmodium vivax relapse rates in allied soldiers during the Second World War: Importance of hypnozoite burden. Am J Trop Med Hyg 107: 1173–1177.
-
8.
Russell P, 1946. Lessons in malariology from World War II. Am J Trop Med Hyg 26: 5–13.
-
9.
Shanks GD, White NJ, 2013. The activation of vivax malaria hypnozoites by infectious diseases. Lancet Infect Dis 13: 900–906.
-
10.
Shanks GD, Waller M, 2022. Malaria relapses following parasite-free blood transfusions in the U.S. Army during the Korean War. Am J Trop Med Hyg 106: 1237–1239.
-
11.
Shanks GD, 2022. Historical 8-aminoquinoline combinations: Not all antimalarial drugs work well together. Am J Trop Med Hyg 107: 964–967.
-
12.
Fairley NH, 1946. Malaria in the South-West Pacific, with special reference to its chemotherapeutic control. Med J Aust 2: 145–162.
-
13.
Downs WG, 1946. Results in an infantry regiment of several plans of treatment for vivax malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 26: 67–86.
-
14.
Coggeshall L, 1945. Malaria and filariasis in the returning serviceman: The ninth Charles Franklin Craig Lecture. Am J Trop Med Hyg 25: 177–184.
-
15.
Boyd MF, Kitchen S, 1944. Renewed clinical activity in naturally induced vivax malaria. Am J Trop Med 24: 221–234.
-
16.
Stratman-Thomas WK, 1935. Studies on benign tertian malaria. 8. Observations on splenomegaly. Am J Hyg 21: 361–363.
-
17.
Long PH, 1963. Treatment of malaria. Coates JB Internal Medicine in World War II: Infectious Diseases. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 519.
-
18.
Gordon H, Lippincott S, Marble A, Ball A, Ellerbrook L & Glass W Jr. 1945. Clinical features of relapsing Plasmodium vivax malaria in soldiers evacuated from the South Pacific Area. Arch Intern Med (Chic) 75: 159–167.
-
19.
Blackburn CRB, 1948. Observations on the development of resistance to vivax Malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 42: 117–162.
-
20.
Hill E, Amatuzio DS, 1949. Southwest Pacific vivax malaria. Clinical features and observations concerning duration of clinical activity. Am J Trop Med 29: 203–214.
-
21.
Hunter T, 1945. Fever in a hyper-endemic malarial area: a critical analysis of 2,913 cases. Indian Med Gazette 80: 247.
-
22.
Pang LW, Limsomwong N, Boudreau EF, Singharaj P, 1987. Doxycycline prophylaxis for falciparum malaria. Lancet 1: 1161–1164.
-
23.
Looareesuwan S, White NJ, Chittamas S, Bunnag D, Harinasuta T, 1987. High rate of Plasmodium vivax relapse following treatment of falciparum malaria in Thailand. Lancet 2: 1052–1055.
-
24.
Looareesuwan S, Ho M, Wattanagoon Y, White NJ, Warrell DA, Bunnag D, Harinasuta T, Wyler DJ, 1987. Dynamic alteration in splenic function during acute falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 317: 675–679.
-
25.
Commons RJ, Simpson JA, Thriemer K, Hossain MS, Douglas NM, Humphreys GS, Sibley CH, Guerin PJ, Price RN, 2019. Risk of Plasmodium vivax parasitaemia after Plasmodium falciparum infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Lancet Infect Dis 19: 91–101.
-
26.
White NJ, 2011. Determinants of relapse periodicity in Plasmodium vivax malaria. Malar J 10: 297.
-
27.
Sutanto I et al., 2023. Tafenoquine co-administered with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for the radical cure of Plasmodium vivax malaria (INSPECTOR): A randomised, placebo-controlled, efficacy and safety study. Lancet Infect Dis 23: 1153–1163.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 8205 | 8205 | 755 |
| Full Text Views | 63 | 63 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 74 | 74 | 0 |