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Risk of Neglected Zoonotic Malaria in Western Ghats: How the Ecosystem Favors Transmission of an Impending Public Health Threat
Tulasi Karumuthil
Tulasi Karumuthil
Field Unit, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Chennai, India;
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, India
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Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, India
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Alex Eapen
alexeapen@yahoo.com
Alex Eapen
Field Unit, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Chennai, India;
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, India
Search for other papers by Alex Eapen in
Current site
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PubMed
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, India
Search for other papers by Alex Eapen in
Current site
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PubMed
ABSTRACT.
The threat of zoonotic malaria remains largely overlooked in India, particularly in regions such as the Western Ghats (WG), a biodiversity hotspot. The WG has diverse species of non-human primates that serve as reservoir hosts for simian malaria parasites. The presence of the Leucosphyrus group of mosquitoes and other vectors of human malaria makes WG vulnerable to the risk of parasite spillover. Natural and anthropogenic factors have contributed to rampant changes in the WG landscape, leading to increased interaction with the sylvatic hosts and vectors. The simian host–human–vector–environment interactions govern the transmission dynamics of zoonotic malaria; however, our knowledge of these interlinkages, encompassing the effect of anthropogenic disruptions in the WG is limited. The impending threat of zoonotic malaria in India could decelerate progress toward malaria elimination, warranting a comprehensive and systematic investigation of disease dynamics in the WG.
Author Notes
Current contact information: Tulasi Karumuthil and Alex Eapen, Field Unit, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Chennai, India, and Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, India, E-mails: tulsikvotpm@gmail.com and alexeapen@yahoo.com.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
WHO , 2023. World Malaria Report 2023. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
2.
WHO , 2022. World Malaria Report 2022. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
3.
Singh B , Sung LK , Matusop A , Radhakrishnan A , Shamsul SS , Cox-Singh J , Thomas A , Conway DJ , 2004. A large focus of naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi infections in human beings. Lancet 363: 1017–1024.
-
4.
Chin W , Contacos PG , Coatney GR , Kimball HR , 1965. A naturally acquired quotidian-type malaria in man transferable to monkeys. Science 149: 865.
-
5.
Tyagi RK , Das MK , Singh SS , Sharma YD , 2013. Discordance in drug resistance-associated mutation patterns in marker genes of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium knowlesi during coinfections. J Antimicrob Chemother 68: 1081–1088.
-
6.
Myers N , Mittermeier RA , Mittermeier CG , da Fonseca GA , Kent J , 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853–858.
-
7.
Ramakrishnan SP , Mohan BN , 1962. An enzootic focus of simian malaria in Macaca radiata radiata Geoffroy of Nilgiris, Madras State, India. Indian J Malariol 16: 87–94.
-
8.
Pattanayak S , 1963. A note on natural simian malaria infection in Kerala State, India. Indian J Malariol 17: 293–294.
-
9.
Choudhury DS , 1981. Investigation on simian malaria in India, and its potential as a source of zoonosis. Indian J Malariol 18: 28–34.
-
10.
Jha C , Dutt C , Bawa K , 2000. Deforestation and land use changes in Western Ghats, India. Curr Sci 79: 231–238.
-
11.
Chandran MD , 1993. Vegetational Changes in the Evergreen Forest Belt of Uttara Kannada District of Karnataka State. Dharwad, India: Karnatak University.
-
12.
Chandran MS , 1997. On the ecological history of the Western Ghats. Curr Sci 73: 146–155.
-
13.
Gadgil M , Daniels RR , Ganeshaiah KN , Prasad SN , Murthy MSR , Jha CS , Ramesh BR , Subramanian KA , 2011. Mapping ecologically sensitive, significant and salient areas of Western Ghats: Proposed protocols and methodology. Curr Sci 100: 175–182.
-
14.
Nagarajan A , Murari KK , Jayaraman T , Radhakrishnan G , 2015. Appraising the debate on biodiversity conservation in the Western Ghats. Econ Polit Wkly 52: 49–56.
-
15.
Nair NV , Moolakkattu JS , 2017. The Western Ghats imbroglio in Kerala: A political economy perspective. Econ Polit Wkly 52: 56–65.
-
16.
Münster D , Münster U , 2012. Human–animal conflicts in Kerala: Elephants and ecological modernity on the agrarian frontier in South India. RCC Perspect 5: 41–50.
-
17.
Karanth KK , Gopalaswamy AM , Prasad PK , Dasgupta S , 2013. Patterns of human–wildlife conflicts and compensation: Insights from Western Ghats protected areas. Biol Conserv 166: 175–185.
-
18.
Government of Kerala, State Planning Board, Agricultural Division Working Group on Addressing Issues Related to Human-Wildlife Interaction in Kerala, Fourteenth Five-Year-Plan (2022–2027).
-
19.
Murhekar MV , Kasabi GS , Mehendale SM , Mourya DT , Yadav PD , Tandale BV , 2015. On the transmission pattern of Kyasanur Forest disease (KFD) in India. Infect Dis Poverty 4: 1–4.
-
20.
Chakraborty S , Andrade FCD , Ghosh S , Uelmen J , Ruiz MO , 2019. Historical expansion of Kyasanur forest disease in India from 1957 to 2017: A retrospective analysis. Geohealth 3: 44–55.
-
21.
Paulraj PS , Renu G , Ranganathan K , Leo VJ , Veeramanoharan R , 2021. First seroprevalence report of scrub typhus from the tribal belts of the Nilgiris district, Tamil Nadu, India. Indian J Med Res 153: 503.
-
22.
Arunkumar G , Chandni R , Mourya DT , Singh SK , Sadanandan R , Sudan P , Bhargava B , 2019. Outbreak investigation of Nipah virus disease in Kerala, India, 2018. J Infect Dis 219: 1867–1878.
-
23.
Escalante AA , Freeland DE , Collins WE , Lal AA , 1998. The evolution of primate malaria parasites based on the gene encoding cytochrome b from the linear mitochondrial genome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 8124–8129.
-
24.
Prugnolle F , Durand P , Neel C , Ollomo B , Ayala FJ , Arnathau C , Etienne L , Mpoudi-Ngole E , Nkoghe D , Leroy E , 2010. African great apes are natural hosts of multiple related malaria species, including Plasmodium falciparum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107: 1458–1463.
-
25.
Kumara HN , Singh M , 2004. Distribution and abundance of primates in rain forests of the Western Ghats, Karnataka, India and the conservation of Macaca silenus. Int J Primatol 25: 1001–1018.
-
26.
Kumara HN , Singh M , 2011. Distribution, Status and Conservation of Primates of the Western Ghats. Commissioned papers/Western Ghats. Available at: https://indiabiodiversity.org/biodiv/content/documents/document-08da9988-cb9d-4498-8399-b2b00d9879c2/870.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2024.
-
27.
Erinjery JJ , Kumar S , Kumara HN , Mohan K , Dhananjaya T , Sundararaj P , Kent R , Singh M , 2017. Losing its ground: A case study of fast declining populations of a “least-concern” species, the bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata). PLoS One 12: e0182140.
-
28.
Thierry B , Singh M , Kaumanns W , 2004. Macaque Societies: A Model for the Study of Social Organization. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
-
29.
Coatney GR , Chin W , Contacos PG , King HK , 1966. Plasmodium inui, a quartan-type malaria parasite of Old World monkeys transmissible to man. J Parasitol 52: 660–663.
-
30.
Coatney GR , 1971. The Primate Malarias. Bethesda, MD: U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.
-
31.
Fodden J , 1994. Malaria in Macaques. Int J Primatol 15: 573–596.
-
32.
Dixit J , Zachariah A , Sajesh PK , Chandramohan B , Shanmuganatham V , Karanth KP , 2018. Reinvestigating the status of malaria parasite (Plasmodium sp.) in Indian non-human primates. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 12: e0006801.
-
33.
Muehlenbein MP , Pacheco MA , Taylor JE , Prall SP , Ambu L , Nathan S , Alsisto S , Ramirez D , Escalante AA , 2015. Accelerated diversification of nonhuman primate malarias in southeast Asia: Adaptive radiation or geographic speciation? Mol Biol Evol 32: 422–439.
-
34.
Baird JK , 2009. Malaria zoonoses. Travel Med Infect Dis 7: 269–277.
-
35.
Vadivelan M , Dutta TK , 2014. Recent advances in the management of Plasmodium knowlesi infection. Trop Parasitol 4: 31–34.
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