ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Be In the Know , 2015. HIV and AIDS in Latin America the Caribbean Regional Overview. Available at: https://www.avert.org/professionals/hiv-around-world/latin-america/overview. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
2.
NIH , 2020. People Living with HIV Receiving ART. Available at: https://hivinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv/fact-sheets/hiv-treatment-basics. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
3.
Carrillo K , 2019. Belize HIV Stigma Index 2019. Available at: https://www.stigmaindex.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Belize-SI-Report-2019.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
4.
Central Intelligence Agency , 2021. Belize. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/belize/. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
5.
The Statistical Institute of Belize , 2013. Belize Population and Housing Census Country Report 2010. Available at: https://sib.org.bz/wp-content/uploads/2010_Census_Report.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
6.
PSI , Multiple Partnerships and Risk for HIV among the Garifuna Minority Population in Belize. Available at: https://www.psi.org/publication/multiple-partnerships-and-risk-for-hiv-among-the-garifuna-minority-population-in-belize/. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
7.
GBD 2019 Diseases and Injuries Collaborators , 2020. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 396: 1204–1222.
-
8.
Belize Ministry of Health , 2017. Annual HIV Statistical Report 2017. Available at: https://nacbelize.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Best-Final-HIV-Surviellance-Report-2017-2.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
9.
Goffman E , 1963. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.
-
10.
Link BG , Phelan JC , 2006. Stigma and its public health implications. Lancet 367: 528–529.
-
11.
Herek GM , Capitanio JP , Widaman KF , 2003. Stigma, social risk, and health policy: public attitudes toward HIV surveillance policies and the social construction of illness. Health Psychol 22: 533–540.
-
12.
Link BG , Phelan JC , 2001. Conceptualizing stigma. Annu Rev Sociol 27: 363–385.
-
13.
Sereda Y et al., 2020. Stigma and quality of co-located care for HIV-positive people in addiction treatment in Ukraine: a cross-sectional study. J Int AIDS Soc 23: e25492.
-
14.
Vetrova M et al., 2021. HIV and substance use stigma, intersectional stigma and healthcare among HIV-positive PWID in Russia: a cross-sectional study. AIDS Behav 25: 2815–2826.
-
15.
Ma PHX , Chan ZCY , Loke AY , 2019. Self-stigma reduction interventions for people living with HIV/AIDS and their families: a systematic review. AIDS Behav 23: 707–741.
-
16.
Stangl AL , Earnshaw VA , Logie CH , van Brakel WC , Simbayi L , Barré I , Dovidio JF , 2019. The Health Stigma and Discrimination Framework: a global, crosscutting framework to inform research, intervention development, and policy on health-related stigmas. BMC Med 17: 31.
-
17.
Pan Caribbean Partnership against HIV and AIDS, Caribbean Community , 2017. Caribbean Regional Strategic Framework on HIV and AIDS 2014–2018. Available at https://caricom.org/documents/13212-final_crsf_2014-2018_final.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
18.
Bourne PA , South-Bourne N , Francis CG , 2010. Knowledge, attitude and practices of adults of the reproductive years on reproductive health matters, with emphasis on HIV infected people in a Caribbean society. North Am J Med Sci 2: 381–388.
-
19.
Stigma Index , 2013. Persons Living with HIV Stigma Index: Belize. Available at: http://www.stigmaindex.org/belize. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
20.
Dellar RC , Dlamini S , Karim QA , 2015. Adolescent girls and young women: key populations for HIV epidemic control. J Int AIDS Soc 18: 19408.
-
21.
Johnson M et al., 2015. Barriers to access to care reported by women living with HIV across 27 countries. AIDS Care 27: 1220–1230.
-
22.
Abdool Karim Q , Baxter C , Birx D , 2017. Prevention of HIV in adolescent girls and young women: key to an AIDS-free generation. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 75 (Suppl 1):S17–S26.
-
23.
UNICEF , 2017. UNICEF MICS. Available at: https://score.tools.who.int/tools/survey-populations-and-health-risks/tool/multiple-indicator-cluster-survey-6-mics6-3/. Accessed July 14, 2023.
-
24.
International Center for Research on Women , 2012. Summary Report on Development of Proposed Stigma and Discrimination Indicators. Available at: https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/STRIVE_stigma-brief-A4.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
25.
Braun V , Clarke V , 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol 3: 77–101.
-
26.
Hill CE , Knox S , Thompson BJ , Williams EN , Hess SA , Ladany N , 2005. Consensual qualitative research: an update. J Couns Psychol 52: 196–205.
-
27.
Kuhlmann AS , Bergquist EP , Fu Q , Shacham E , Foggia J , Sierra M , 2018. Uptake of HIV testing during antenatal care in Honduras. Int J STD AIDS 29: 526–530.
-
28.
Creek TL et al., 2007. Successful introduction of routine opt-out HIV testing in antenatal care in Botswana. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 45: 102–107.
-
29.
Njau B , Ostermann J , Brown D , Mühlbacher A , Reddy E , Thielman N , 2014. HIV testing preferences in Tanzania: a qualitative exploration of the importance of confidentiality, accessibility, and quality of service. BMC Public Health 14: 838.
-
30.
Musheke M , Ntalasha H , Gari S , Mckenzie O , Bond V , Martin-Hilber A , Merten S , 2013. A systematic review of qualitative findings on factors enabling and deterring uptake of HIV testing in sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Public Health 13: 220.
-
31.
Massiah E , Roach TC , Jacobs C , St. John AM , Inniss V , Walcott J , Blackwood C , 2004. Stigma, discrimination, and HIV/AIDS knowledge among physicians in Barbados. Rev Panam Salud Publica 16: 395–401.
-
32.
Gutiérrez JP , Trossero A , 2021. Socioeconomic inequalities in HIV knowledge, HIV testing, and condom use among adolescent and young women in Latin America and the Caribbean. Rev Panam Salud Publica 45: e47.
-
33.
Haque MA , Hossain MSN , Chowdhury MAB , Uddin MJ , 2018. Factors associated with knowledge and awareness of HIV/AIDS among married women in Bangladesh: evidence from a nationally representative survey. SAHARA J 15: 121–127.
-
34.
Mondal MNI , Hoque N , Chowdhury MRK , Hossain MS , 2015. Factors associated with misconceptions about HIV transmission among ever-married women in Bangladesh. Jpn J Infect Dis 68: 13–19.
-
35.
Yaya S , Bishwajit G , Danhoundo G , Shah V , Ekholuenetale M , 2016. Trends and determinants of HIV/AIDS knowledge among women in Bangladesh. BMC Public Health 16: 812.
-
36.
Iqbal S , Maqsood S , Zafar A , Zakar R , Zakar MZ , Fischer F , 2019. Determinants of overall knowledge of and attitudes towards HIV/AIDS transmission among ever-married women in Pakistan: evidence from the Demographic and Health Survey 2012–13. BMC Public Health 19: 793.
-
37.
Peltzer K , Babayigit S , Rodriguez VJ , Jean J , Sifunda S , Jones DL , 2018. Effect of a multicomponent behavioural PMTCT cluster randomised controlled trial on HIV stigma reduction among perinatal HIV positive women in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. SAHARA J 15: 80–88.
-
38.
Moghadam ZB , Rezaei E , Sharifi B , Nejat S , Saeieh SE , Khiaban MO , 2018. The effect of empowerment and educational programs on the quality of life in Iranian women with HIV. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care 17: 2325958218759681.
-
39.
Watt MH et al., 2021. Pilot outcomes of Maisha: an HIV stigma reduction intervention developed for antenatal care in Tanzania. AIDS Behav 25: 1171–1184.
-
40.
Baron D , Scorgie F , Ramskin L , Khoza N , Schutzman J , Stangl A , Harvey S , Delany-Moretlwe S , EMPOWER Study Team , 2020. “You talk about problems until you feel free”: South African adolescent girls’ and young women’s narratives on the value of HIV prevention peer support clubs. BMC Public Health 20: 1016.
-
41.
Kerr JC et al., 2015. The effects of a mass media HIV-risk reduction strategy on HIV-related stigma and knowledge among African American adolescents. AIDS Patient Care STDS 29: 150–156.
-
42.
Lapinski MK , Nwulu P , 2008. Can a short film impact HIV-related risk and stigma perceptions? Results from an experiment in Abuja, Nigeria. Health Commun 23: 403–412.
-
43.
Castillo J , 2013. Belize: National Composite Policy Index (NCPI) Report 2008. Available at: https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/Belize%2520NCPI%25202013.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
44.
Lohmann T , Tam P , Hopman WM , Wobeser W , 2009. Knowledge of and attitudes towards HIV/AIDS among school teachers in Belize. Int J Infect Dis 13: e228–e235.
-
45.
Kemigisha E , Bruce K , Ivanova O , Leye E , Coene G , Ruzaaza GN , Ninsiima AB , Mlahagwa W , Nyakato VN , Michielsen K , 2019. Evaluation of a school based comprehensive sexuality education program among very young adolescents in rural Uganda. BMC Public Health 19: 1393.
-
46.
Borawski EA , Tufts KA , Trapl ES , Hayman LL , Yoder LD , Lovegreen LD , 2015. Effectiveness of health education teachers and school nurses teaching sexually transmitted infections/human immunodeficiency virus prevention knowledge and skills in high school. J Sch Health 85: 189–196.
-
47.
Ekstrand ML , Bharat S , Srinivasan K , 2018. HIV stigma is a barrier to achieving 90-90-90 in India. Lancet HIV 5: e543–e545.
-
48.
Young SD , Zhu Y , 2012. Behavioral evidence of HIV testing stigma. AIDS Behav 16: 736–740.
-
49.
Nabunya P , Byansi W , Sensoy Bahar O , McKay M , Ssewamala FM , Damulira C , 2020. Factors associated with HIV disclosure and HIV-related stigma among adolescents living with HIV in Southwestern Uganda. Front Psychiatry 11: 772.
-
50.
Golub SA , 2018. PrEP stigma: implicit and explicit drivers of disparity. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 15: 190–197.
-
51.
Calabrese SK , Underhill K , 2015. How stigma surrounding the use of HIV preexposure prophylaxis undermines prevention and pleasure: a call to destigmatize “Truvada Whores.” Am J Public Health 105: 1960–1964.
-
52.
Carter G , Woodward B , 2020. The relationship between perception of HIV susceptibility and willingness to discuss PrEP with a health care provider: a pilot study. Am J Men Health 14: 1557988320919661.
-
53.
Velloza J et al., 2020. The influence of HIV-related stigma on PrEP disclosure and adherence among adolescent girls and young women in HPTN 082: a qualitative study. J Int AIDS Soc 23: e25463.
-
54.
Jani N , Mathur S , Kahabuka C , Makyao N , Pilgrim N , 2021. Relationship dynamics and anticipated stigma: key considerations for PrEP use among Tanzanian adolescent girls and young women and male partners. PLoS One 16: e0246717.
-
55.
UNAIDS , 2023. Global HIV and AIDS Statistics. Available at: https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet. Accessed August 15, 2023.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 607 | 607 | 201 |
| Full Text Views | 20 | 20 | 7 |
| PDF Downloads | 28 | 28 | 9 |
Women’s Perceived HIV Stigma and Testing in Stann Creek District, Belize: A Population-Representing, Mixed-Methods Study
Sarah L. Rossi
Sarah L. Rossi
Department of Medicine, Clinical Addiction Research and Education Unit, Boston Medical Center, Massachusetts;
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Kalee Young
Kalee Young
UNICEF Belize Office, Belize;
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Paulette Wade
Paulette Wade
UNICEF Belize Office, Belize;
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Shane M. Khan
Shane M. Khan
Division of Data, Research and Policy, UNICEF, New York, New York;
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Karsten Lunze
Karsten Lunze
Department of Medicine, Clinical Addiction Research and Education Unit, Boston Medical Center, Massachusetts;
Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Massachusetts
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Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Massachusetts
Search for other papers by Karsten Lunze in
Current site
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PubMed
ABSTRACT.
Stigma affects adversely the HIV prevention continuum and care cascade. Our population-based, mixed-methods study aimed to assess women’s perceived HIV stigma and discriminatory attitudes, and their relation with HIV testing in a high-prevalence area in Belize. This population-representing household survey in the mixed urban–rural setting of Stann Creek District, Belize, collected data from 236 women age 15 to 49 years. We analyzed HIV testing rates, HIV prevention and transmission knowledge, perceived stigma manifestations, and participant attitudes. Concurrently, a nested qualitative component of study cognitive interviews with a purposive sample of 23 women explored HIV stigma in their community. A vast majority of women (96%) perceived HIV stigma manifestations in their communities as pervasive and a deterrent to people from testing. Discriminatory attitudes (16% believe children with HIV should not attend school) and HIV misconceptions (53% fear acquiring HIV through saliva) tended to be more common in nonurban areas and among women with less formal education. Stigma persisted even with high HIV testing rates among women. Qualitative findings triangulated survey results and, taken together, suggest that prejudices held against people with HIV led to avoidance of HIV preventive measures such as testing and status disclosure, fueled by a strong distrust of the medical care system regarding confidentiality of HIV test results. Misconceptions about HIV and stigmatizing attitudes remain pervasive among women in Stann Creek, Belize. Health literacy, stigma interventions, and expansion of routine confidential testing to include men are needed to address the HIV and stigma syndemic in Belize.
Author Notes
Financial support: Funding for this study was provided to
Disclosure: The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The Statistical Institute of Belize as the national authority on data collection provided ethical oversight and oversaw protection of human subjects. The Boston University institutional review board (IRB) provided ethical oversight over the writing of results, which was determined to be nonhuman subjects research under IRB No. H-41098.
Current contact information: Sarah L. Rossi, Department of Medicine, Clinical Addiction Research and Education Unit, Boston Medical Center, MA, E-mail: sarah.rossi@bmc.org. Kalee Young and Paulette Wade, UNICEF Belize Office, Belize, E-mails: kalee.young1@gmail.com and pwade@unicef.org. Shane M. Khan, Division of Data, Research and Policy, UNICEF, New York, NY, E-mail: shanemkhanphd@gmail.com. Karsten Lunze, Department of Medicine, Clinical Addiction Research and Education Unit, Boston Medical Center, MA, and Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Massachusetts, E-mail: lunze@bu.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Be In the Know , 2015. HIV and AIDS in Latin America the Caribbean Regional Overview. Available at: https://www.avert.org/professionals/hiv-around-world/latin-america/overview. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
2.
NIH , 2020. People Living with HIV Receiving ART. Available at: https://hivinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv/fact-sheets/hiv-treatment-basics. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
3.
Carrillo K , 2019. Belize HIV Stigma Index 2019. Available at: https://www.stigmaindex.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Belize-SI-Report-2019.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
4.
Central Intelligence Agency , 2021. Belize. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/belize/. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
5.
The Statistical Institute of Belize , 2013. Belize Population and Housing Census Country Report 2010. Available at: https://sib.org.bz/wp-content/uploads/2010_Census_Report.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
6.
PSI , Multiple Partnerships and Risk for HIV among the Garifuna Minority Population in Belize. Available at: https://www.psi.org/publication/multiple-partnerships-and-risk-for-hiv-among-the-garifuna-minority-population-in-belize/. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
7.
GBD 2019 Diseases and Injuries Collaborators , 2020. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 396: 1204–1222.
-
8.
Belize Ministry of Health , 2017. Annual HIV Statistical Report 2017. Available at: https://nacbelize.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Best-Final-HIV-Surviellance-Report-2017-2.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
9.
Goffman E , 1963. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.
-
10.
Link BG , Phelan JC , 2006. Stigma and its public health implications. Lancet 367: 528–529.
-
11.
Herek GM , Capitanio JP , Widaman KF , 2003. Stigma, social risk, and health policy: public attitudes toward HIV surveillance policies and the social construction of illness. Health Psychol 22: 533–540.
-
12.
Link BG , Phelan JC , 2001. Conceptualizing stigma. Annu Rev Sociol 27: 363–385.
-
13.
Sereda Y et al., 2020. Stigma and quality of co-located care for HIV-positive people in addiction treatment in Ukraine: a cross-sectional study. J Int AIDS Soc 23: e25492.
-
14.
Vetrova M et al., 2021. HIV and substance use stigma, intersectional stigma and healthcare among HIV-positive PWID in Russia: a cross-sectional study. AIDS Behav 25: 2815–2826.
-
15.
Ma PHX , Chan ZCY , Loke AY , 2019. Self-stigma reduction interventions for people living with HIV/AIDS and their families: a systematic review. AIDS Behav 23: 707–741.
-
16.
Stangl AL , Earnshaw VA , Logie CH , van Brakel WC , Simbayi L , Barré I , Dovidio JF , 2019. The Health Stigma and Discrimination Framework: a global, crosscutting framework to inform research, intervention development, and policy on health-related stigmas. BMC Med 17: 31.
-
17.
Pan Caribbean Partnership against HIV and AIDS, Caribbean Community , 2017. Caribbean Regional Strategic Framework on HIV and AIDS 2014–2018. Available at https://caricom.org/documents/13212-final_crsf_2014-2018_final.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
18.
Bourne PA , South-Bourne N , Francis CG , 2010. Knowledge, attitude and practices of adults of the reproductive years on reproductive health matters, with emphasis on HIV infected people in a Caribbean society. North Am J Med Sci 2: 381–388.
-
19.
Stigma Index , 2013. Persons Living with HIV Stigma Index: Belize. Available at: http://www.stigmaindex.org/belize. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
20.
Dellar RC , Dlamini S , Karim QA , 2015. Adolescent girls and young women: key populations for HIV epidemic control. J Int AIDS Soc 18: 19408.
-
21.
Johnson M et al., 2015. Barriers to access to care reported by women living with HIV across 27 countries. AIDS Care 27: 1220–1230.
-
22.
Abdool Karim Q , Baxter C , Birx D , 2017. Prevention of HIV in adolescent girls and young women: key to an AIDS-free generation. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 75 (Suppl 1):S17–S26.
-
23.
UNICEF , 2017. UNICEF MICS. Available at: https://score.tools.who.int/tools/survey-populations-and-health-risks/tool/multiple-indicator-cluster-survey-6-mics6-3/. Accessed July 14, 2023.
-
24.
International Center for Research on Women , 2012. Summary Report on Development of Proposed Stigma and Discrimination Indicators. Available at: https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/STRIVE_stigma-brief-A4.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
25.
Braun V , Clarke V , 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol 3: 77–101.
-
26.
Hill CE , Knox S , Thompson BJ , Williams EN , Hess SA , Ladany N , 2005. Consensual qualitative research: an update. J Couns Psychol 52: 196–205.
-
27.
Kuhlmann AS , Bergquist EP , Fu Q , Shacham E , Foggia J , Sierra M , 2018. Uptake of HIV testing during antenatal care in Honduras. Int J STD AIDS 29: 526–530.
-
28.
Creek TL et al., 2007. Successful introduction of routine opt-out HIV testing in antenatal care in Botswana. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 45: 102–107.
-
29.
Njau B , Ostermann J , Brown D , Mühlbacher A , Reddy E , Thielman N , 2014. HIV testing preferences in Tanzania: a qualitative exploration of the importance of confidentiality, accessibility, and quality of service. BMC Public Health 14: 838.
-
30.
Musheke M , Ntalasha H , Gari S , Mckenzie O , Bond V , Martin-Hilber A , Merten S , 2013. A systematic review of qualitative findings on factors enabling and deterring uptake of HIV testing in sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Public Health 13: 220.
-
31.
Massiah E , Roach TC , Jacobs C , St. John AM , Inniss V , Walcott J , Blackwood C , 2004. Stigma, discrimination, and HIV/AIDS knowledge among physicians in Barbados. Rev Panam Salud Publica 16: 395–401.
-
32.
Gutiérrez JP , Trossero A , 2021. Socioeconomic inequalities in HIV knowledge, HIV testing, and condom use among adolescent and young women in Latin America and the Caribbean. Rev Panam Salud Publica 45: e47.
-
33.
Haque MA , Hossain MSN , Chowdhury MAB , Uddin MJ , 2018. Factors associated with knowledge and awareness of HIV/AIDS among married women in Bangladesh: evidence from a nationally representative survey. SAHARA J 15: 121–127.
-
34.
Mondal MNI , Hoque N , Chowdhury MRK , Hossain MS , 2015. Factors associated with misconceptions about HIV transmission among ever-married women in Bangladesh. Jpn J Infect Dis 68: 13–19.
-
35.
Yaya S , Bishwajit G , Danhoundo G , Shah V , Ekholuenetale M , 2016. Trends and determinants of HIV/AIDS knowledge among women in Bangladesh. BMC Public Health 16: 812.
-
36.
Iqbal S , Maqsood S , Zafar A , Zakar R , Zakar MZ , Fischer F , 2019. Determinants of overall knowledge of and attitudes towards HIV/AIDS transmission among ever-married women in Pakistan: evidence from the Demographic and Health Survey 2012–13. BMC Public Health 19: 793.
-
37.
Peltzer K , Babayigit S , Rodriguez VJ , Jean J , Sifunda S , Jones DL , 2018. Effect of a multicomponent behavioural PMTCT cluster randomised controlled trial on HIV stigma reduction among perinatal HIV positive women in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. SAHARA J 15: 80–88.
-
38.
Moghadam ZB , Rezaei E , Sharifi B , Nejat S , Saeieh SE , Khiaban MO , 2018. The effect of empowerment and educational programs on the quality of life in Iranian women with HIV. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care 17: 2325958218759681.
-
39.
Watt MH et al., 2021. Pilot outcomes of Maisha: an HIV stigma reduction intervention developed for antenatal care in Tanzania. AIDS Behav 25: 1171–1184.
-
40.
Baron D , Scorgie F , Ramskin L , Khoza N , Schutzman J , Stangl A , Harvey S , Delany-Moretlwe S , EMPOWER Study Team , 2020. “You talk about problems until you feel free”: South African adolescent girls’ and young women’s narratives on the value of HIV prevention peer support clubs. BMC Public Health 20: 1016.
-
41.
Kerr JC et al., 2015. The effects of a mass media HIV-risk reduction strategy on HIV-related stigma and knowledge among African American adolescents. AIDS Patient Care STDS 29: 150–156.
-
42.
Lapinski MK , Nwulu P , 2008. Can a short film impact HIV-related risk and stigma perceptions? Results from an experiment in Abuja, Nigeria. Health Commun 23: 403–412.
-
43.
Castillo J , 2013. Belize: National Composite Policy Index (NCPI) Report 2008. Available at: https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/Belize%2520NCPI%25202013.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2021.
-
44.
Lohmann T , Tam P , Hopman WM , Wobeser W , 2009. Knowledge of and attitudes towards HIV/AIDS among school teachers in Belize. Int J Infect Dis 13: e228–e235.
-
45.
Kemigisha E , Bruce K , Ivanova O , Leye E , Coene G , Ruzaaza GN , Ninsiima AB , Mlahagwa W , Nyakato VN , Michielsen K , 2019. Evaluation of a school based comprehensive sexuality education program among very young adolescents in rural Uganda. BMC Public Health 19: 1393.
-
46.
Borawski EA , Tufts KA , Trapl ES , Hayman LL , Yoder LD , Lovegreen LD , 2015. Effectiveness of health education teachers and school nurses teaching sexually transmitted infections/human immunodeficiency virus prevention knowledge and skills in high school. J Sch Health 85: 189–196.
-
47.
Ekstrand ML , Bharat S , Srinivasan K , 2018. HIV stigma is a barrier to achieving 90-90-90 in India. Lancet HIV 5: e543–e545.
-
48.
Young SD , Zhu Y , 2012. Behavioral evidence of HIV testing stigma. AIDS Behav 16: 736–740.
-
49.
Nabunya P , Byansi W , Sensoy Bahar O , McKay M , Ssewamala FM , Damulira C , 2020. Factors associated with HIV disclosure and HIV-related stigma among adolescents living with HIV in Southwestern Uganda. Front Psychiatry 11: 772.
-
50.
Golub SA , 2018. PrEP stigma: implicit and explicit drivers of disparity. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 15: 190–197.
-
51.
Calabrese SK , Underhill K , 2015. How stigma surrounding the use of HIV preexposure prophylaxis undermines prevention and pleasure: a call to destigmatize “Truvada Whores.” Am J Public Health 105: 1960–1964.
-
52.
Carter G , Woodward B , 2020. The relationship between perception of HIV susceptibility and willingness to discuss PrEP with a health care provider: a pilot study. Am J Men Health 14: 1557988320919661.
-
53.
Velloza J et al., 2020. The influence of HIV-related stigma on PrEP disclosure and adherence among adolescent girls and young women in HPTN 082: a qualitative study. J Int AIDS Soc 23: e25463.
-
54.
Jani N , Mathur S , Kahabuka C , Makyao N , Pilgrim N , 2021. Relationship dynamics and anticipated stigma: key considerations for PrEP use among Tanzanian adolescent girls and young women and male partners. PLoS One 16: e0246717.
-
55.
UNAIDS , 2023. Global HIV and AIDS Statistics. Available at: https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet. Accessed August 15, 2023.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 607 | 607 | 201 |
| Full Text Views | 20 | 20 | 7 |
| PDF Downloads | 28 | 28 | 9 |