Authors:
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
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1.
WHO , 2024. World Malaria Report 2023. Available at: https://www.who.int/teams/global-malaria-programme/reports/world-malaria-report-2023. Accessed February 11, 2024.
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NVBDCP , 2024. National Center for Vector Borne Diseases Control. Available at: https://ncvbdc.mohfw.gov.in/index4.php?lang=1&level=0&linkid=420&lid=3699. Accessed February 11, 2024.
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4.
Sarma DK , Mohapatra PK , Bhattacharyya DR , Chellappan S , Karuppusamy B , Barman K , Senthil Kumar N , Dash AP , Prakash A , Balabaskaran Nina P , 2019. Malaria in North-East India: Importance and implications in the era of elimination. Microorganisms 7: 673.
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Balabaskaran Nina P et al., 2017. Dynamics of Plasmodium vivax sporogony in wild Anopheles stephensi in a malaria-endemic region of Western India. Malar J 16: 284.
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WHO , 2022. World Malaria Report 2022. Available at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240064898. Accessed September 11, 2023.
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WHO , 2019. World Malaria Report 2019. Available at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565721. Accessed September 11, 2023.
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8.
Das S , Kar A , Manna S , Mandal S , Mandal S , Das S , Saha B , Hati AK , 2021. Artemisinin combination therapy fails even in the absence of Plasmodium falciparum kelch13 gene polymorphism in Central India. Sci Rep 11: 9946.
-
9.
Chakrabarti R et al., 2019. Decreased in vitro artemisinin sensitivity of Plasmodium falciparum across India. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 63: e00101-19.
-
10.
Pathak A , Martensson A , Gawariker S , Sharma A , Diwan V , Purohit M , Ursing J , 2020. Stable high frequencies of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine resistance associated mutations and absence of K13 mutations in Plasmodium falciparum 3 and 4 years after the introduction of artesunate plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, India. Malar J 19: 290.
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11.
Asia Pacific Leaders Malaria Alliance , 2017. Asia Pacific Leaders Malaria Alliance Malaria Elimination Roadmap. Available at: https://aplma.s3.ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/aplma/assets/KULDDbkg/aplma-roadmap.pdf. Accessed August 31, 2023.
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12.
WHO , 2023. Malaria. Available at: https://www.who.int/india/health-topics/malaria. Accessed September 11, 2023.
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13.
Rahi M et al., 2019. MERA India: Malaria Elimination Research Alliance India. J Vector Borne Dis 56: 1–3.
-
14.
National Portal of India , 2020. Population Projections for India and States 2011–2036. Available at: https://www.india.gov.in/population-projections-india-and-states-2011-2036?page=3. Accessed April 27, 2024.
-
15.
Government of India , 2021. Census Data, 2001. Available at: https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/. Accessed August 31, 2023.
-
16.
State of Forest Report , 2021. ENVIS RP on Forestry and Forest Related Livelihoods. Available at: https://fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2021. Accessed April 27, 2024.
-
17.
NCST , 2023. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes. Available at: https://ncst.nic.in/. Accessed September 10, 2023.
-
18.
GOI , 1950. The Gazette of India. Available at: https://tribal.nic.in/downloads/CLM/CLM_1/1.pdf. Accessed September 11, 2023.
-
19.
WHO , 2023. World Malaria Global Report 2023. Available at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240086173. Accessed September 10, 2023.
-
20.
WHO , 2024. The Global Health Observatory, Annual Parasite Index. Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/indicator-metadata-registry/imr-details/1196. Accessed April 24, 2024.
-
21.
WHO , 2012. Disease Surveillance for Malaria Control, An Operational Manual. Available at: https://www3.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2012/WHO-Disease-Surveillance-Malaria-Control-2012.pdf. Accessed September 10, 2023.
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22.
Valecha N , Joshi H , Mallick PK , Sharma SK , Kumar A , Tyagi PK , Shahi B , Das MK , Nagpal BN , Dash AP , 2009. Low efficacy of chloroquine: Time to switchover to artemisinin-based combination therapy for falciparum malaria in India. Acta Trop 111: 21–28.
-
23.
Anvikar AR , Arora U , Sonal GS , Mishra N , Shahi B , Savargaonkar D , Kumar N , Shah NK , Valecha N , 2014. Antimalarial drug policy in India: Past, present & future. Indian J Med Res 139: 205–215.
-
24.
Fairhurst RM , Dondorp AM , 2016. Artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Microbiol Spectr 4: EI10-0013-2016.
-
25.
Lalmalsawma P , Balasubramani K , James MM , Pautu L , Prasad KA , Sarma DK , Balabaskaran Nina P , 2023. Malaria hotspots and climate change trends in the hyper-endemic malaria settings of Mizoram along the India-Bangladesh borders. Sci Rep 13: 4538.
-
26.
Vanlalhriata C , Lalpianpuii , Wankhar PT , Prakash PT , Amarthaluri C , Pautu L , Vanramliana , Lalmalsawma P , Balasubramani K , Nina PB , 2024. Assessment of knowledge, attitude, and practices toward malaria in the Lunglei district, Mizoram, North-East India. Preprint (version 1) available at Research Square. doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3888445/v1.
-
27.
Mishra N , Bharti RS , Mallick P , Singh OP , Srivastava B , Rana R , Phookan S , Gupta HP , Ringwald P , Valecha N , 2016. Emerging polymorphisms in falciparum Kelch 13 gene in Northeastern region of India. Malar J 15: 583.
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28.
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29.
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30.
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-
31.
Das S , Manna S , Saha B , Hati AK , Roy S , 2019. Novel pfkelch13 gene polymorphism associates with artemisinin resistance in eastern India. Clin Infect Dis 69: 1144–1152.
-
32.
Tun KM et al., 2015. Spread of artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum in Myanmar: A cross-sectional survey of the K13 molecular marker. Lancet Infect Dis 15: 415–421.
-
33.
Nima MK et al., 2022. Assessment of Plasmodium falciparum artemisinin resistance independent of kelch13 polymorphisms and with escalating malaria in Bangladesh. mBio 13: e0344421.
-
34.
Sahoo M , Pradhan J , 2021. Reproductive healthcare beliefs and behaviours among displaced tribal communities in Odisha and Chhattisgarh: An analysis using health belief model. J Anthropol Surv India 70: 87–102.
-
35.
Kumar MM , Pathak VK , Ruikar M , 2020. Tribal population in India: A public health challenge and road to future. J Family Med Prim Care 9: 508–512.
-
36.
Sharma RK , Thakor HG , Saha KB , Sonal GS , Dhariwal AC , Singh N , 2015. Malaria situation in India with special reference to tribal areas. Indian J Med Res 141: 537–545.
-
37.
Singh N , Mishra AK , Saha KB , Bharti PK , Sisodia DS , Sonal GS , Dhariwal AC , Sharma RK , 2018. Malaria control in a tribal area of central India using existing tools. Acta Trop 181: 60–68.
-
38.
Pradhan MM , Meherda PK , 2019. Malaria elimination drive in Odisha: Hope for halting the transmission. J Vector Borne Dis 56: 53–55.
-
39.
Anvikar AR , Shah N , Dhariwal AC , Sonal GS , Pradhan MM , Ghosh SK , Valecha N , 2016. Epidemiology of Plasmodium vivax malaria in India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 95: 108–120.
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40.
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41.
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42.
Gautam AS , Sharma RC , Bhatt RM , Gupta DK , 1992. Microscopic diagnosis of malaria in Kheda district of Gujarat. Indian J Malariol 29: 83–87.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 2417 | 2417 | 290 |
| Full Text Views | 98 | 98 | 23 |
| PDF Downloads | 108 | 108 | 11 |
Spatiotemporal Epidemiology of Malaria in India from 2007 to 2022
Karuppusamy Balasubramani
Karuppusamy Balasubramani
Department of Geography, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India;
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Praveen K. Bharti
Praveen K. Bharti
ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India;
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Christiana Amarthaluri
Christiana Amarthaluri
ICMR-National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India;
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Savitha Chellappan
Savitha Chellappan
Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India;
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Sujit Kumar Behera
Sujit Kumar Behera
Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India;
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Ajeet Kumar Mohanty
Ajeet Kumar Mohanty
ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Panaji, India;
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Devojit Kumar Sarma
Devojit Kumar Sarma
ICMR-National Institute for Research in Environmental Health, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India;
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Aditya Prasad Dash
Aditya Prasad Dash
Asian Institute of Public Health University, Cuttack, India;
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Praveen Balabaskaran Nina
Praveen Balabaskaran Nina
Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, India
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ABSTRACT.
India is a major contributor to the global burden of malaria, especially Plasmodium vivax infection. Understanding the spatiotemporal trends of malaria across India over the last two decades may assist in targeted intervention. The population-normalized spatiotemporal trends of malaria epidemiology in India from 2007 to 2022 were analyzed using a geographic information system with the publicly available “malaria situation” report of the National Vector Borne Disease Control Program (NVBDCP). The NVBDCP data showed malaria cases to have steeply declined from 1.17 million in 2015 to 0.18 million cases in 2022; this is 10.1 and 18.7 fold lower than the WHO’s estimate of 11.93 million and 3.38 million cases in 2015 and 2022, respectively. From 2007 to 2022, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand consistently reported high caseloads of Plasmodium falciparum. In the same period, the P. vivax caseload was high in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The distribution of forest cover, annual rainfall, and proportion of the Scheduled Tribe population (the most underprivileged in Indian society) spatially correlated with malaria cases and deaths. Mizoram is the only state where cases were higher in 2022 than in 2007. Overall, India has made tremendous progress in controlling malaria and malaria-related deaths in the last decade. The decline could be attributed to the effective vector and parasite control strategies implemented across the country.
- Supplemental Materials (PDF 735.31 KB)
Author Notes
Disclosures: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplemental information. The state-wise malaria data are in the public domain and can be accessed from https://ncvbdc.mohfw.gov.in.
Authors’ contributions: P. Balabaskaran Nina and K. Balasubramani designed the study and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. K. Balasubramani and C. Amarthaluri analyzed and made the figures. P. K. Bharti, S. K. Behera, D. K. Sarma, A. P. Dash, and S. Chellappan contributed significantly to the interpretation and discussion sections of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Authors’ addresses: Karuppusamy Balasubramani, Department of Geography, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India, E-mail: geobalas@cutn.ac.in. Praveen K. Bharti, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India, E-mail: saprapbs@yahoo.co.in. Christiana Amarthaluri, ICMR-National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India, E-mail: christiana.tapani@gmail.com. Savitha Chellappan and Sujit Kumar Behera, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India, E-mails: savithachellappan@gmail.com and sujitkumar@cutn.ac.in. Ajeet Kumar Mohanty, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Panaji, India, E-mail: ajeet.nimr@gmail.com. Devojit Kumar Sarma, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Environmental Health, Bhopal, India, E-mail: dkbiotek@gmail.com. Aditya Prasad Dash, Asian Institute of Public Health University, Cuttack, India, E-mail: apdash@gmail.com. Praveen Balabaskaran Nina, Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, India, E-mail: praveen.nina@cukerala.ac.in.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
WHO , 2024. World Malaria Report 2023. Available at: https://www.who.int/teams/global-malaria-programme/reports/world-malaria-report-2023. Accessed February 11, 2024.
-
2.
WHO , 2015. Global Technical Strategy for Malaria 2016–2030. Available at: Available at: https://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/9789241564991/en/. Accessed September 11, 2023.
-
3.
NVBDCP , 2024. National Center for Vector Borne Diseases Control. Available at: https://ncvbdc.mohfw.gov.in/index4.php?lang=1&level=0&linkid=420&lid=3699. Accessed February 11, 2024.
-
4.
Sarma DK , Mohapatra PK , Bhattacharyya DR , Chellappan S , Karuppusamy B , Barman K , Senthil Kumar N , Dash AP , Prakash A , Balabaskaran Nina P , 2019. Malaria in North-East India: Importance and implications in the era of elimination. Microorganisms 7: 673.
-
5.
Balabaskaran Nina P et al., 2017. Dynamics of Plasmodium vivax sporogony in wild Anopheles stephensi in a malaria-endemic region of Western India. Malar J 16: 284.
-
6.
WHO , 2022. World Malaria Report 2022. Available at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240064898. Accessed September 11, 2023.
-
7.
WHO , 2019. World Malaria Report 2019. Available at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565721. Accessed September 11, 2023.
-
8.
Das S , Kar A , Manna S , Mandal S , Mandal S , Das S , Saha B , Hati AK , 2021. Artemisinin combination therapy fails even in the absence of Plasmodium falciparum kelch13 gene polymorphism in Central India. Sci Rep 11: 9946.
-
9.
Chakrabarti R et al., 2019. Decreased in vitro artemisinin sensitivity of Plasmodium falciparum across India. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 63: e00101-19.
-
10.
Pathak A , Martensson A , Gawariker S , Sharma A , Diwan V , Purohit M , Ursing J , 2020. Stable high frequencies of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine resistance associated mutations and absence of K13 mutations in Plasmodium falciparum 3 and 4 years after the introduction of artesunate plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, India. Malar J 19: 290.
-
11.
Asia Pacific Leaders Malaria Alliance , 2017. Asia Pacific Leaders Malaria Alliance Malaria Elimination Roadmap. Available at: https://aplma.s3.ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/aplma/assets/KULDDbkg/aplma-roadmap.pdf. Accessed August 31, 2023.
-
12.
WHO , 2023. Malaria. Available at: https://www.who.int/india/health-topics/malaria. Accessed September 11, 2023.
-
13.
Rahi M et al., 2019. MERA India: Malaria Elimination Research Alliance India. J Vector Borne Dis 56: 1–3.
-
14.
National Portal of India , 2020. Population Projections for India and States 2011–2036. Available at: https://www.india.gov.in/population-projections-india-and-states-2011-2036?page=3. Accessed April 27, 2024.
-
15.
Government of India , 2021. Census Data, 2001. Available at: https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/. Accessed August 31, 2023.
-
16.
State of Forest Report , 2021. ENVIS RP on Forestry and Forest Related Livelihoods. Available at: https://fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2021. Accessed April 27, 2024.
-
17.
NCST , 2023. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes. Available at: https://ncst.nic.in/. Accessed September 10, 2023.
-
18.
GOI , 1950. The Gazette of India. Available at: https://tribal.nic.in/downloads/CLM/CLM_1/1.pdf. Accessed September 11, 2023.
-
19.
WHO , 2023. World Malaria Global Report 2023. Available at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240086173. Accessed September 10, 2023.
-
20.
WHO , 2024. The Global Health Observatory, Annual Parasite Index. Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/indicator-metadata-registry/imr-details/1196. Accessed April 24, 2024.
-
21.
WHO , 2012. Disease Surveillance for Malaria Control, An Operational Manual. Available at: https://www3.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2012/WHO-Disease-Surveillance-Malaria-Control-2012.pdf. Accessed September 10, 2023.
-
22.
Valecha N , Joshi H , Mallick PK , Sharma SK , Kumar A , Tyagi PK , Shahi B , Das MK , Nagpal BN , Dash AP , 2009. Low efficacy of chloroquine: Time to switchover to artemisinin-based combination therapy for falciparum malaria in India. Acta Trop 111: 21–28.
-
23.
Anvikar AR , Arora U , Sonal GS , Mishra N , Shahi B , Savargaonkar D , Kumar N , Shah NK , Valecha N , 2014. Antimalarial drug policy in India: Past, present & future. Indian J Med Res 139: 205–215.
-
24.
Fairhurst RM , Dondorp AM , 2016. Artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Microbiol Spectr 4: EI10-0013-2016.
-
25.
Lalmalsawma P , Balasubramani K , James MM , Pautu L , Prasad KA , Sarma DK , Balabaskaran Nina P , 2023. Malaria hotspots and climate change trends in the hyper-endemic malaria settings of Mizoram along the India-Bangladesh borders. Sci Rep 13: 4538.
-
26.
Vanlalhriata C , Lalpianpuii , Wankhar PT , Prakash PT , Amarthaluri C , Pautu L , Vanramliana , Lalmalsawma P , Balasubramani K , Nina PB , 2024. Assessment of knowledge, attitude, and practices toward malaria in the Lunglei district, Mizoram, North-East India. Preprint (version 1) available at Research Square. doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3888445/v1.
-
27.
Mishra N , Bharti RS , Mallick P , Singh OP , Srivastava B , Rana R , Phookan S , Gupta HP , Ringwald P , Valecha N , 2016. Emerging polymorphisms in falciparum Kelch 13 gene in Northeastern region of India. Malar J 15: 583.
-
28.
Mishra N et al., 2015. Surveillance of artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum in India using the kelch13 molecular marker. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 59: 2548–2553.
-
29.
WHO , 2022. Malaria: Artemisinin Partial Resistance. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/artemisinin-resistance. Accessed April 24, 2024.
-
30.
Das S , Saha B , Hati AK , Roy S , 2018. Evidence of artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria in eastern India. N Engl J Med 379: 1962–1964.
-
31.
Das S , Manna S , Saha B , Hati AK , Roy S , 2019. Novel pfkelch13 gene polymorphism associates with artemisinin resistance in eastern India. Clin Infect Dis 69: 1144–1152.
-
32.
Tun KM et al., 2015. Spread of artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum in Myanmar: A cross-sectional survey of the K13 molecular marker. Lancet Infect Dis 15: 415–421.
-
33.
Nima MK et al., 2022. Assessment of Plasmodium falciparum artemisinin resistance independent of kelch13 polymorphisms and with escalating malaria in Bangladesh. mBio 13: e0344421.
-
34.
Sahoo M , Pradhan J , 2021. Reproductive healthcare beliefs and behaviours among displaced tribal communities in Odisha and Chhattisgarh: An analysis using health belief model. J Anthropol Surv India 70: 87–102.
-
35.
Kumar MM , Pathak VK , Ruikar M , 2020. Tribal population in India: A public health challenge and road to future. J Family Med Prim Care 9: 508–512.
-
36.
Sharma RK , Thakor HG , Saha KB , Sonal GS , Dhariwal AC , Singh N , 2015. Malaria situation in India with special reference to tribal areas. Indian J Med Res 141: 537–545.
-
37.
Singh N , Mishra AK , Saha KB , Bharti PK , Sisodia DS , Sonal GS , Dhariwal AC , Sharma RK , 2018. Malaria control in a tribal area of central India using existing tools. Acta Trop 181: 60–68.
-
38.
Pradhan MM , Meherda PK , 2019. Malaria elimination drive in Odisha: Hope for halting the transmission. J Vector Borne Dis 56: 53–55.
-
39.
Anvikar AR , Shah N , Dhariwal AC , Sonal GS , Pradhan MM , Ghosh SK , Valecha N , 2016. Epidemiology of Plasmodium vivax malaria in India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 95: 108–120.
-
40.
White NJ , 2011. Determinants of relapse periodicity in Plasmodium vivax malaria. Malar J 10: 297.
-
41.
Ding XC et al., 2017. Defining the next generation of Plasmodium vivax diagnostic tests for control and elimination: Target product profiles. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 11: e0005516.
-
42.
Gautam AS , Sharma RC , Bhatt RM , Gupta DK , 1992. Microscopic diagnosis of malaria in Kheda district of Gujarat. Indian J Malariol 29: 83–87.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 2417 | 2417 | 290 |
| Full Text Views | 98 | 98 | 23 |
| PDF Downloads | 108 | 108 | 11 |