- ABSTRACT.
- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- STATISTICAL ANALYSES
- RESULTS
- Sand-fly density and species distribution.
- Comparison of sand-fly density by trapping location (basement/indoor/outdoor).
- Comparison of sand-fly densities among different sites.
- Comparison of sand-fly density between case and noncase households.
- Sandfly seasonal variation.
- Morphological identification.
- Molecular identification.
- Detection of Leishmania spp. DNA.
- DISCUSSION
- CONCLUSION
- Supplemental Materials
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- REFERENCES
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Killick-Kendrick R , 1990. Phlebotomine vectors of the leishmaniasis: a review. Med Vet Entomol 4: 1–24.
-
2.
Thakur L , Singh KK , Shanker V , Negi A , Jain A , Matlashewski G , Jain M , 2018. Atypical leishmaniasis: a global perspective with emphasis on the Indian subcontinent. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 12: e0006659.
-
3.
Steverding D , 2017. The history of leishmaniasis. Parasit Vectors 10: 82.
-
4.
Ziljstra EE , Alwar J , 2013. The post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) atlas. Lancet Infect Dis 3: 87–98.
-
5.
Rijal S , Sundar S , Mondal D , Das P , Alvar J , Boelaert M , 2019. Eliminating visceral leishmaniasis in South Asia: the road ahead. BMJ 364: k5224.
-
6.
World Health Organization , 2023. Leishmaniasis. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis#. Accessed August 12, 2022.
-
7.
Banjara M , Gurung CK , Uranw S , Pandey K , 2015. Internal Assessment of Kala-azar Elimination Programme of Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: Public Health and Infectious Disease Research Center, Nepal.
-
8.
Chowdhury R , Mondal D , Chowdhury V , Faria S , Alvar J , Nabi SG , Boelaert M , Dash AP , 2014. How far are we from visceral leishmaniasis elimination in Bangladesh? An assessment of epidemiological surveillance data. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8: e3020.
-
9.
World Health Organization , 2015. Kala-Azar Elimination Programme: Report of a WHO Consultation of Partners. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
10.
Bhattacharya SK , Chowdhury R , Aditya D , Tobgay T , 2010. Occurrence and significance of kala-azar in Bhutan. Indian J Med Res 132: 337–338.
-
11.
Yangzom T , Cruz I , Bern C , Argaw D , den Boer M , Vélez ID , Bhattacharya SK , Molina R , Alvar J , 2012. Endemic transmission of visceral leishmaniasis in Bhutan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87: 1028–1037.
-
12.
Sharma U , Singh S , 2008. Insect vectors of Leishmania: distribution, physiology and their control. J Vector Borne Dis 45: 255–272.
-
13.
Lewis DJ , 1978. The phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) of the oriental region. Bull Br Mus 37: 217–343.
-
14.
Merrill DG , Jih CL , 1970. The Phlebotomus of Taiwan. J Med Entomol 7: 529–543.
-
15.
Alves-Pires C , Ramos HC , Ribeiro H , Easton ER , 1996. Occurrence of Sergentomya (parrotomyia) barraudi (Sinton, 1929) in Macau. Parasite 3: 91–93.
-
16.
Dantas-Torres F , Tarallo VD , Otranto D , 2014. Morphological keys for the identification of Italian phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae). Parasit Vectors 7: 1–6.
-
17.
Deepachandi B , Weerasinghe S , Soysa P , Karunaweera N , Siriwardana Y , 2019. A highly sensitive modified nested PCR to enhance case detection in leishmaniasis. BMC Infect Dis 19: 623.
-
18.
Senanayake SA , Abeyewicreme W , Dotson EM , Karunaweera ND , 2015. Characteristics of phlebotomine sandflies in selected areas of Sri Lanka. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 46: 994.
-
19.
Sharma NL , Vikram MK , Nitin R , Ghanshyam KV , Ajit KN , Karan ISM , 2009. The sandflies of the Satluj River valley, Himachal Pradesh (India): some possible vectors of the parasite causing human cutaneous and visceral leishmaniases in this endemic focus. J Vector Borne Dis 46: 136–140.
-
20.
Kulkarni SM , Bhat HR , Modi GB , 1978. Survey of Phlebotomid sandflies from the Himalayan region, India (Diptera: Phlebotomidae). Indian J Med Res 67: 583–588.
-
21.
Picado A et al., 2010. Phlebotomus argentipes seasonal patterns in India and Nepal. J Med Entomol 47: 283–286.
-
22.
Dinesh DS et al., 2000. Screening sandflies for natural infection with Leishmania donovani, using a non-radioactive probe based on the total DNA of the parasite. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 94: 447–451.
-
23.
Boelaert M , Meheus F , Sanchez A , Singh SP , Vanlerberghe V , Picado A , Meessen B , Sundar S , 2009. The poorest of the poor: a poverty appraisal of households affected by visceral leishmaniasis in Bihar, India. Trop Med Int Health 14: 639–644.
-
24.
Perry D , Dixon K , Garlapati R , Gendernalik A , Poche D , Poche R , 2013. Visceral leishmaniasis prevalence and associated risk factors in the Saran District of Bihar, India, from 2009 to July of 2011. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88: 778–784.
-
25.
Shreekant K , Gouri SB , Vijay K , Algarswamy J , Alok R , Das P , 2010. Study of house-level risk factors associated in the transmission of Indian Kala-azar. Parasit Vectors 3: 94.
-
26.
Ozbel Y , Sanjoba C , Matsumoto Y , 2016. Geographical Distribution and Ecological Aspect of Sand Fly Species in Bangladesh. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
-
27.
Guan LR , Zhou ZB , Jin CF , Fu Q , Chai J-J , 2016. Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) transmitting visceral leishmaniasis and their geographical distribution in China: a review. Infect Dis Poverty 5: 15.
-
28.
Leng YJ , 1997. Eighty-year research of Phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: psychodidae) in China (1915–1995). I. Taxonomy and zoogeographical distribution. Parasite 4: 107–126.
-
29.
Chusri S , Thammapalo S , Silpapojakul K , Siriyasatien P , 2014. Animal reservoirs and potential vectors of Leishmania siamensis in southern Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 45: 13–19.
-
30.
Lawyer P , Killick-Kendrick M , Rowland T , Rowton E & Volf P. 2017. Laboratory colonization and mass rearing of phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera, Psychodidae). Parasite 24: 42.
-
31.
Tiwary P , Kumar D , Mishra M , Singh RP , Rai M , Sundar S , 2013. Seasonal variation in the prevalence of sand flies infected with Leishmania donovani. PLoS One 8: e61370.
-
32.
Alten B et al., 2016. Seasonal dynamics of phlebotomine sand fly species proven vectors of Mediterranean leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania infantum. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: e0004458.
-
33.
Ozbel Y et al., 2011. Distribution and ecological aspects of sand fly (Diptera: Psychodidae) species in Sri Lanka. J Vector Ecol 36: S77–S86.
-
34.
Surendran SN , Karunaratne SH , Adams Z , Hemingway J , Hawkes NJ , 2005. Molecular and biochemical characterization of a sand fly population from Sri Lanka: evidence for insecticide resistance due to altered esterases and insensitive acetylcholinesterase. Bull Entomol Res 95: 371–380.
-
35.
Alten B et al., 2015. Sampling strategies for phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Europe. Bull Entomol Res 105: 664–678.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 893 | 893 | 99 |
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Distribution and Seasonal Variation of Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia Sand Fly Populations in Bhutan
Tenzin Wangdi
Tenzin Wangdi
Vector Borne Disease Control Programme, Ministry of Health, Gelephu, Bhutan;
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Sanath Senanayake
Sanath Senanayake
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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Sithar Dorjee
Sithar Dorjee
Khesar Gyalpo University of Medical Sciences of Bhutan, Thimphu, Bhutan;
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Tashi Tobgay
Tashi Tobgay
Khesar Gyalpo University of Medical Sciences of Bhutan, Thimphu, Bhutan;
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Guofa Zhou
Guofa Zhou
Program in Public Health, University of California, Irvine, California
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Sachee B. Piyasiri
Sachee B. Piyasiri
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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W. M. Lakshika I. Weerasinghe
W. M. Lakshika I. Weerasinghe
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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Nadira Karunaweera
Nadira Karunaweera
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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ABSTRACT.
Leishmaniasis is considered one of the neglected tropical diseases in the world. Although Bhutan is a member of the visceral leishmaniasis elimination consortium in South Asia, not much attention has been accorded to the disease because of its low incidence. The vector that transmits Leishmania remains poorly understood. In this backdrop, sand-fly surveys were regularly conducted at multiple sites where leishmaniasis cases have been reported in Bhutan. Collections were made using CDC light traps and cattle-baited net traps in 15 villages from February 2019 to May 2022. Six species of Phlebotomus and four species of Sergentomyia were identified from these sites that included two Phlebotomus and three Sergentomyia species discovered for the first time in Bhutan. Sand-fly density varied significantly from village to village, and it showed strong seasonality with peak numbers collected from June to October and almost zero from December to February. Overall, sand-fly density was highest in the basements of the houses and were higher outdoors than indoors. Cattle-baited net traps collected few sand flies during the surveillance period. This work constituted the first systematic sand-fly population surveillance conducted in Bhutan and will provide a baseline for future vector ecology and Leishmania epidemiological studies.
- Supplemental Materials (PDF 784.08 KB)
Author Notes
Financial support: Research reported in this publication was supported by the
Authors’ addresses: Tenzin Wangdi, Vector Borne Disease Control Programme, Ministry of Health, Gelephu, Bhutan, E-mail: karbay2014@gmail.com. Sanath Senanayake, Sachee B. Piyasiri, W. M. Lakshika I. Weerasinghe, and Nadira Karunaweera, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka, E-mails: sanath@parasit.cmb.ac.lk, sacheebhanu@gmail.com, lakshika.iroshani94@gmail.com, and nadira@parasit.cmb.ac.lk. Sithar Dorjee and Tashi Tobgay, Khesar Gyalpo University of Medical Sciences of Bhutan, Thimphu, Bhutan, E-mails: s.dorjee@kgumsb.edu.bt and tobgayla2000@gmail.com. Guofa Zhou, Program in Public Health, University of California, Irvine, CA, E-mail: guofaz@gmail.com.
- ABSTRACT.
- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- STATISTICAL ANALYSES
- RESULTS
- Sand-fly density and species distribution.
- Comparison of sand-fly density by trapping location (basement/indoor/outdoor).
- Comparison of sand-fly densities among different sites.
- Comparison of sand-fly density between case and noncase households.
- Sandfly seasonal variation.
- Morphological identification.
- Molecular identification.
- Detection of Leishmania spp. DNA.
- DISCUSSION
- CONCLUSION
- Supplemental Materials
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- REFERENCES
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Killick-Kendrick R , 1990. Phlebotomine vectors of the leishmaniasis: a review. Med Vet Entomol 4: 1–24.
-
2.
Thakur L , Singh KK , Shanker V , Negi A , Jain A , Matlashewski G , Jain M , 2018. Atypical leishmaniasis: a global perspective with emphasis on the Indian subcontinent. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 12: e0006659.
-
3.
Steverding D , 2017. The history of leishmaniasis. Parasit Vectors 10: 82.
-
4.
Ziljstra EE , Alwar J , 2013. The post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) atlas. Lancet Infect Dis 3: 87–98.
-
5.
Rijal S , Sundar S , Mondal D , Das P , Alvar J , Boelaert M , 2019. Eliminating visceral leishmaniasis in South Asia: the road ahead. BMJ 364: k5224.
-
6.
World Health Organization , 2023. Leishmaniasis. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis#. Accessed August 12, 2022.
-
7.
Banjara M , Gurung CK , Uranw S , Pandey K , 2015. Internal Assessment of Kala-azar Elimination Programme of Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: Public Health and Infectious Disease Research Center, Nepal.
-
8.
Chowdhury R , Mondal D , Chowdhury V , Faria S , Alvar J , Nabi SG , Boelaert M , Dash AP , 2014. How far are we from visceral leishmaniasis elimination in Bangladesh? An assessment of epidemiological surveillance data. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8: e3020.
-
9.
World Health Organization , 2015. Kala-Azar Elimination Programme: Report of a WHO Consultation of Partners. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
10.
Bhattacharya SK , Chowdhury R , Aditya D , Tobgay T , 2010. Occurrence and significance of kala-azar in Bhutan. Indian J Med Res 132: 337–338.
-
11.
Yangzom T , Cruz I , Bern C , Argaw D , den Boer M , Vélez ID , Bhattacharya SK , Molina R , Alvar J , 2012. Endemic transmission of visceral leishmaniasis in Bhutan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87: 1028–1037.
-
12.
Sharma U , Singh S , 2008. Insect vectors of Leishmania: distribution, physiology and their control. J Vector Borne Dis 45: 255–272.
-
13.
Lewis DJ , 1978. The phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) of the oriental region. Bull Br Mus 37: 217–343.
-
14.
Merrill DG , Jih CL , 1970. The Phlebotomus of Taiwan. J Med Entomol 7: 529–543.
-
15.
Alves-Pires C , Ramos HC , Ribeiro H , Easton ER , 1996. Occurrence of Sergentomya (parrotomyia) barraudi (Sinton, 1929) in Macau. Parasite 3: 91–93.
-
16.
Dantas-Torres F , Tarallo VD , Otranto D , 2014. Morphological keys for the identification of Italian phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae). Parasit Vectors 7: 1–6.
-
17.
Deepachandi B , Weerasinghe S , Soysa P , Karunaweera N , Siriwardana Y , 2019. A highly sensitive modified nested PCR to enhance case detection in leishmaniasis. BMC Infect Dis 19: 623.
-
18.
Senanayake SA , Abeyewicreme W , Dotson EM , Karunaweera ND , 2015. Characteristics of phlebotomine sandflies in selected areas of Sri Lanka. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 46: 994.
-
19.
Sharma NL , Vikram MK , Nitin R , Ghanshyam KV , Ajit KN , Karan ISM , 2009. The sandflies of the Satluj River valley, Himachal Pradesh (India): some possible vectors of the parasite causing human cutaneous and visceral leishmaniases in this endemic focus. J Vector Borne Dis 46: 136–140.
-
20.
Kulkarni SM , Bhat HR , Modi GB , 1978. Survey of Phlebotomid sandflies from the Himalayan region, India (Diptera: Phlebotomidae). Indian J Med Res 67: 583–588.
-
21.
Picado A et al., 2010. Phlebotomus argentipes seasonal patterns in India and Nepal. J Med Entomol 47: 283–286.
-
22.
Dinesh DS et al., 2000. Screening sandflies for natural infection with Leishmania donovani, using a non-radioactive probe based on the total DNA of the parasite. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 94: 447–451.
-
23.
Boelaert M , Meheus F , Sanchez A , Singh SP , Vanlerberghe V , Picado A , Meessen B , Sundar S , 2009. The poorest of the poor: a poverty appraisal of households affected by visceral leishmaniasis in Bihar, India. Trop Med Int Health 14: 639–644.
-
24.
Perry D , Dixon K , Garlapati R , Gendernalik A , Poche D , Poche R , 2013. Visceral leishmaniasis prevalence and associated risk factors in the Saran District of Bihar, India, from 2009 to July of 2011. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88: 778–784.
-
25.
Shreekant K , Gouri SB , Vijay K , Algarswamy J , Alok R , Das P , 2010. Study of house-level risk factors associated in the transmission of Indian Kala-azar. Parasit Vectors 3: 94.
-
26.
Ozbel Y , Sanjoba C , Matsumoto Y , 2016. Geographical Distribution and Ecological Aspect of Sand Fly Species in Bangladesh. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
-
27.
Guan LR , Zhou ZB , Jin CF , Fu Q , Chai J-J , 2016. Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) transmitting visceral leishmaniasis and their geographical distribution in China: a review. Infect Dis Poverty 5: 15.
-
28.
Leng YJ , 1997. Eighty-year research of Phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: psychodidae) in China (1915–1995). I. Taxonomy and zoogeographical distribution. Parasite 4: 107–126.
-
29.
Chusri S , Thammapalo S , Silpapojakul K , Siriyasatien P , 2014. Animal reservoirs and potential vectors of Leishmania siamensis in southern Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 45: 13–19.
-
30.
Lawyer P , Killick-Kendrick M , Rowland T , Rowton E & Volf P. 2017. Laboratory colonization and mass rearing of phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera, Psychodidae). Parasite 24: 42.
-
31.
Tiwary P , Kumar D , Mishra M , Singh RP , Rai M , Sundar S , 2013. Seasonal variation in the prevalence of sand flies infected with Leishmania donovani. PLoS One 8: e61370.
-
32.
Alten B et al., 2016. Seasonal dynamics of phlebotomine sand fly species proven vectors of Mediterranean leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania infantum. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: e0004458.
-
33.
Ozbel Y et al., 2011. Distribution and ecological aspects of sand fly (Diptera: Psychodidae) species in Sri Lanka. J Vector Ecol 36: S77–S86.
-
34.
Surendran SN , Karunaratne SH , Adams Z , Hemingway J , Hawkes NJ , 2005. Molecular and biochemical characterization of a sand fly population from Sri Lanka: evidence for insecticide resistance due to altered esterases and insensitive acetylcholinesterase. Bull Entomol Res 95: 371–380.
-
35.
Alten B et al., 2015. Sampling strategies for phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Europe. Bull Entomol Res 105: 664–678.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 893 | 893 | 99 |
| Full Text Views | 30 | 30 | 2 |
| PDF Downloads | 38 | 38 | 4 |