ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
World Health Organization WHO Leishmaniasis Fact Sheet 2021. Available at: http://who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis. Accessed April 3, 2022.
-
2.
World Health Organization , 2022. WHO Leishmaniasis. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis.
-
3.
World Health Organization , 2021. Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Available at: https://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.NTDLEISHCNUM?lang=en. Accessed April 3, 2022.
-
4.
Athukorale DNN , Seneviratne JKK , Ihalamulla RLL , Premaratne UNN , 1992. Locally acquired cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka. J Trop Med Hyg 95: 432–433.
-
5.
Nuwangi H , Weerakoon KG , Agampodi TC , Price HP , Dikomitis L , Agampodi SB , 2022. Rewriting the history of leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka: an untold story since 1904. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 16: 8–12.
-
6.
Karunaweera N et al., 2021. Spatiotemporal distribution of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka and future case burden estimates. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15: e0009346.
-
7.
Epidemiology Unit Ministry of Health Sri Lanka , 2020. Weekly Epidemiological Report. Available at: www.epid.gov.lk/weekly-epidemiological-report/weekly-epidemiological-report. Accessed May 20, 2022.
-
8.
Wijerathna T , Gunathilaka N , Gunawardena K , Rodrigo W , 2020. Socioeconomic, demographic and landscape factors associated with cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kurunegala District, Sri Lanka. Parasit Vectors 13: 1–14.
-
9.
Siriwardana Y , Deepachandi B , de S Weliange S , Udagedara C , Wickremarathne C , Warnasuriya W , Ranawaka RR , Kahawita I , Chandrawansa PH , Karunaweera ND , 2019. First evidence for two independent and different leishmaniasis transmission foci in Sri Lanka. Recent Introduction or Long-Term Existence 2019: 6475939.
-
10.
Kariyawasam KKGDUL , Edirisuriya CS , Senerath U , Hensmen D , Siriwardana HVYD , Karunaweera ND , 2015. Characterisation of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Matara District, southern Sri Lanka: evidence for case clustering. Pathog Glob Health 109: 336–343.
-
11.
Ranasinghe S et al., 2013. Cross-sectional study to assess risk factors for leishmaniasis in an endemic region in Sri Lanka. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 742–749.
-
12.
Karunaweera ND , Pratlong F , Siriwardane HVYD , Ihalamulla RL , Dedet JP , 2003. Sri Lankan cutaneous leishmaniasis is caused by Leishmania donovani zymodeme MON-37. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97: 380–381.
-
13.
Ranasinghe S , Zhang W-W , Wickremasinghe R , Abeygunasekera P , Chandrasekharan V , Athauda S , Mendis S , Hulangamuwa S , Matlashewski G , Pratlong F , 2012. Leishmania donovani zymodeme MON-37 isolated from an autochthonous visceral leishmaniasis patient in Sri Lanka. Pathog Glob Health 106: 421–424.
-
14.
Samarasinghe SR , Samaranayake N , Kariyawasam UL , Siriwardana YD , Imamura H , Karunaweera ND , 2018. Genomic insights into virulence mechanisms of Leishmania donovani: evidence from an atypical strain. BMC Genomics 19: 843.
-
15.
Kariyawasam UL et al., 2017. Genetic diversity of Leishmania donovani that causes cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka: a cross sectional study with regional comparisons. BMC Infect Dis 17: 791.
-
16.
Zhang WW et al., 2014. Genetic analysis of Leishmania donovani tropism using a naturally attenuated cutaneous strain. PLoS Pathog 10: e1004244.
-
17.
World Health Organization , 2017. Manual on Case Management and Surveillance of the Leishmaniases in the WHO European Region. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
-
18.
Perera R , Caldera A , Wickremasinghe AR , 2020. Reactive case detection (RACD) and foci investigation strategies in malaria control and elimination: a review. Malar J 19: 1–11.
-
19.
Gueye C et al., 2013. Active case detection for malaria elimination: a survey among Asia Pacific countries. Malar J 12: 358.
-
20.
Van Eijk AM et al., 2016. What is the value of reactive case detection in malaria control? A case-study in India and a systematic review. Malar J 15: 67.
-
21.
Siriwardena HV , Udagedara CU , Karunaweera ND , 2003. Clinical features, risk factors and efficacy of cryotherapy in cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Med J 48: 10–12.
-
22.
Hennessy S , Bilker WB , Berlin JA , Strom BL , 1999. Factors influencing the optimal control-to-case ratio in matched case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol 149: 195–197.
-
23.
Orshan L , Elbaz S , Ben-Ari Y , Akad F , Afik O , Ben-Avi I , Dias D , Ish-Shalom D , Studentsky L , Zonstein I , 2016. Distribution and dispersal of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) in a zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis focus, the Northern Negev, Israel. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: 1–21.
-
24.
Patridge E , Bardyn T , 2018. Research electronic data capture (REDCap). J Med Libr Assoc 106: 142.
-
25.
Bhunia GS , Kesari S , Chatterjee N , Pal DK , Kumar V , Rangan A , Das P , 2011. Incidence of visceral leishmaniasis in the Vaishali district of Bihar, India: spatial patterns and role of inland water bodies. Geospat Health 5: 205–215.
-
26.
Gonçalves NV et al., 2019. Cutaneous leishmaniasis: spatial distribution and environmental risk factors in the state of Pará, Brazilian Eastern Amazon. J Infect Dev Ctries 13: 939–944.
-
27.
Lana JT , Mallipudi A , Ortiz EJ , Arevalo JH , Llanos-Cuentas A , Pan WK , 2021. Risk factors for cutaneous leishmaniasis in a high-altitude forest region of Peru. Trop Med Health 49: 40.
-
28.
Dewasurendra R , Silva H , Samaranayake N , Manamperi N , de Silva N , Karunanayake P , Senarath U , Senanayake S , Zhou G , Karunaweera N , 2022. Assessment of knowledge and perceptions on leishmaniasis: an island-wide study in Sri Lanka. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 16: e0010821.
-
29.
Iddawela D , Vithana SMP , Atapattu D , Wijekoon L , 2018. Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka. BMC Infect Dis 18: 1–9.
-
30.
da Silva Nunes W , Araújo SR , Calheiros CML , 2010. Epidemiological profile of leishmaniasis at a reference service in the state of Alagoas, Brazil, from January 2000 to September 2008. Braz J Infect Dis 14: 342–345.
-
31.
Abdellatif MZM , El-Mabrouk K , Ewis AA , 2013. An epidemiological study of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Al-jabal Al-gharbi Libya. Korean J Parasitol 51: 75–84.
-
32.
Khazaei S , Hafshejani AM , Saatchi M , Salehiniya H , Nematollahi S , 2015. Epidemiological aspects of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iran. Arch Clin Infect Dis 10: e28511.
-
33.
Picado A et al., 2010. Effect of village-wide use of long-lasting insecticidal nets on visceral leishmaniasis vectors in India and Nepal: a cluster randomized trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e587.
-
34.
Van-Thiel PPAM , Zeegelaar JE , Van-Gool T , Faber WR , Kager PA , 2011. Cutaneous leishmaniasis in three Dutch military cohorts following jungle training in Belize. Travel Med Infect Dis 9: 153–160.
-
35.
Schwartz E , Hatz C , Blum J , 2006. New world cutaneous leishmaniasis in travellers. Lancet Infect Dis 6: 342–349.
-
36.
Armijos RX , Weigel MM , Izurieta R , Racines J , Zurita C , Herrera W , Vega M , 1997. The epidemiology of cutaneous leishmaniasis in subtropical Ecuador. Trop Med Int Health 2: 140–152.
-
37.
Siriwardana Y , Zhou G , Deepachandi B , 2019. Trends in recently emerged Leishmania donovani induced cutaneous leishmaniasis, Sri Lanka, for the first 13 years. BioMed Res Int 2019: 11.
-
38.
Ministry of Finance, Department of Census and Statistics , 2019. Statistics. Sri Lanka Labour Force Survey – Annual Report 2019. Available at: http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Resource/en/LabourForce/Annual_Reports/LFS2019.pdf. Accessed May 2, 2022.
-
39.
Scott P , 2020. Long-lived skin-resident memory T cells contribute to concomitant immunity in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 12: a038059.
-
40.
Scott P , 2005. Immunologic memory in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Cell Microbiol 7: 1707–1713.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 758 | 758 | 83 |
| Full Text Views | 37 | 37 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 38 | 38 | 1 |
Risk Factor Analysis of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka through a Nationwide Survey
Rajika Dewasurendra
Rajika Dewasurendra
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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Nilakshi Samaranayake
Nilakshi Samaranayake
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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Hermali Silva
Hermali Silva
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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Nuwani Manamperi
Nuwani Manamperi
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, Ragama, Sri Lanka;
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Upul Senerath
Upul Senerath
Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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Sanath Senanayake
Sanath Senanayake
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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Nissanka de Silva
Nissanka de Silva
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayawardenapura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka;
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Panduka Karunanayake
Panduka Karunanayake
Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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Guofa Zhou
Guofa Zhou
Department of Population Health and Disease Prevention, University of California, Irvine, California
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Nadira Karunaweera
Nadira Karunaweera
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
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ABSTRACT.
Leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka was first reported in the early 1990s. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) cases have markedly increased in recent years, demanding due attention from health authorities. The spatial distribution of CL is not homogeneous. This case-control study investigated factors that may contribute to this heterogeneous distribution through a nationwide study. Information on sociodemographic, economic, and environmental characteristics was collected from study participants (cases, n = 303; controls, n = 2,762). All individuals were followed up for 3 years, and signs of CL or associated complications were recorded. Differences in possible risk factors between cases and controls were analyzed. Individuals <18 years old, electricity supply, spending >2 hours outdoors, visiting jungles/water bodies, and living near CL patients were identified as risk factors. Household members of 1.3% of cases, 2.3% of controls residing within a perimeter of 500 m from a patient, and 0.8% of controls living beyond 2 km from a case developed CL. Thus, CL in Sri Lanka appears intertwined with living environment and host behavior. Common environmental factors may be responsible for the higher risk of CL in individuals living in close proximity to CL patients. This may at least partly explain the clustering of CL cases in selected areas of the country.
- Supplemental Materials (PDF 679.29 KB)
Author Notes
Financial support: Research reported in this publication was supported by the
Disclosure: Ethics approval for this study was granted by the Ethics Review Committee of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka (EC – 17-062). Relevant approvals to conduct the health survey were obtained from the Director General of Health Services, Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka, and from the prospective provincial directors of Health Services and regional directors of Health Services. Written informed consent was obtained from all study participants before recruitment to the study. Informed consent was obtained from all participants of this study.
Data availability: The data presented in this study are available from the corresponding author on request. The data are not publicly available owing to the fact that the dataset contains personal identifiers.
Authors’ addresses: Rajika Dewasurendra, Nilakshi Samaranayake, Hermali Silva, Sanath Senanayake, and Nadira Karunaweera, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka, E-mails: rajika@parasit.cmb.ac.lk, nilakshi@parasit.cmb.ac.lk, hermali@parasit.cmb.ac.lk, sanath@parasit.cmb.ac.lk, and nadira@parasit.cmb.ac.lk. Nuwani Manamperi, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, Ragama, Sri Lanka, E-mail: nuwani_harsh@kln.ac.lk. Upul Senerath, Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka, E-mail: upul@commed.cmb.ac.lk. Nissanka de Silva, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayawardenapura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka, E-mail: nissanka@sjp.ac.lk. Panduka Karunanayake, Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka, E-mail: panduka@clinmed.cmb.ac.lk. Guofa Zhou, Department of Population Health and Disease Prevention, University of California, Irvine, CA, E-mail: zhoug@hs.uci.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
World Health Organization WHO Leishmaniasis Fact Sheet 2021. Available at: http://who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis. Accessed April 3, 2022.
-
2.
World Health Organization , 2022. WHO Leishmaniasis. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis.
-
3.
World Health Organization , 2021. Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Available at: https://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.NTDLEISHCNUM?lang=en. Accessed April 3, 2022.
-
4.
Athukorale DNN , Seneviratne JKK , Ihalamulla RLL , Premaratne UNN , 1992. Locally acquired cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka. J Trop Med Hyg 95: 432–433.
-
5.
Nuwangi H , Weerakoon KG , Agampodi TC , Price HP , Dikomitis L , Agampodi SB , 2022. Rewriting the history of leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka: an untold story since 1904. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 16: 8–12.
-
6.
Karunaweera N et al., 2021. Spatiotemporal distribution of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka and future case burden estimates. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15: e0009346.
-
7.
Epidemiology Unit Ministry of Health Sri Lanka , 2020. Weekly Epidemiological Report. Available at: www.epid.gov.lk/weekly-epidemiological-report/weekly-epidemiological-report. Accessed May 20, 2022.
-
8.
Wijerathna T , Gunathilaka N , Gunawardena K , Rodrigo W , 2020. Socioeconomic, demographic and landscape factors associated with cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kurunegala District, Sri Lanka. Parasit Vectors 13: 1–14.
-
9.
Siriwardana Y , Deepachandi B , de S Weliange S , Udagedara C , Wickremarathne C , Warnasuriya W , Ranawaka RR , Kahawita I , Chandrawansa PH , Karunaweera ND , 2019. First evidence for two independent and different leishmaniasis transmission foci in Sri Lanka. Recent Introduction or Long-Term Existence 2019: 6475939.
-
10.
Kariyawasam KKGDUL , Edirisuriya CS , Senerath U , Hensmen D , Siriwardana HVYD , Karunaweera ND , 2015. Characterisation of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Matara District, southern Sri Lanka: evidence for case clustering. Pathog Glob Health 109: 336–343.
-
11.
Ranasinghe S et al., 2013. Cross-sectional study to assess risk factors for leishmaniasis in an endemic region in Sri Lanka. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 742–749.
-
12.
Karunaweera ND , Pratlong F , Siriwardane HVYD , Ihalamulla RL , Dedet JP , 2003. Sri Lankan cutaneous leishmaniasis is caused by Leishmania donovani zymodeme MON-37. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97: 380–381.
-
13.
Ranasinghe S , Zhang W-W , Wickremasinghe R , Abeygunasekera P , Chandrasekharan V , Athauda S , Mendis S , Hulangamuwa S , Matlashewski G , Pratlong F , 2012. Leishmania donovani zymodeme MON-37 isolated from an autochthonous visceral leishmaniasis patient in Sri Lanka. Pathog Glob Health 106: 421–424.
-
14.
Samarasinghe SR , Samaranayake N , Kariyawasam UL , Siriwardana YD , Imamura H , Karunaweera ND , 2018. Genomic insights into virulence mechanisms of Leishmania donovani: evidence from an atypical strain. BMC Genomics 19: 843.
-
15.
Kariyawasam UL et al., 2017. Genetic diversity of Leishmania donovani that causes cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka: a cross sectional study with regional comparisons. BMC Infect Dis 17: 791.
-
16.
Zhang WW et al., 2014. Genetic analysis of Leishmania donovani tropism using a naturally attenuated cutaneous strain. PLoS Pathog 10: e1004244.
-
17.
World Health Organization , 2017. Manual on Case Management and Surveillance of the Leishmaniases in the WHO European Region. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
-
18.
Perera R , Caldera A , Wickremasinghe AR , 2020. Reactive case detection (RACD) and foci investigation strategies in malaria control and elimination: a review. Malar J 19: 1–11.
-
19.
Gueye C et al., 2013. Active case detection for malaria elimination: a survey among Asia Pacific countries. Malar J 12: 358.
-
20.
Van Eijk AM et al., 2016. What is the value of reactive case detection in malaria control? A case-study in India and a systematic review. Malar J 15: 67.
-
21.
Siriwardena HV , Udagedara CU , Karunaweera ND , 2003. Clinical features, risk factors and efficacy of cryotherapy in cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Med J 48: 10–12.
-
22.
Hennessy S , Bilker WB , Berlin JA , Strom BL , 1999. Factors influencing the optimal control-to-case ratio in matched case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol 149: 195–197.
-
23.
Orshan L , Elbaz S , Ben-Ari Y , Akad F , Afik O , Ben-Avi I , Dias D , Ish-Shalom D , Studentsky L , Zonstein I , 2016. Distribution and dispersal of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) in a zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis focus, the Northern Negev, Israel. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: 1–21.
-
24.
Patridge E , Bardyn T , 2018. Research electronic data capture (REDCap). J Med Libr Assoc 106: 142.
-
25.
Bhunia GS , Kesari S , Chatterjee N , Pal DK , Kumar V , Rangan A , Das P , 2011. Incidence of visceral leishmaniasis in the Vaishali district of Bihar, India: spatial patterns and role of inland water bodies. Geospat Health 5: 205–215.
-
26.
Gonçalves NV et al., 2019. Cutaneous leishmaniasis: spatial distribution and environmental risk factors in the state of Pará, Brazilian Eastern Amazon. J Infect Dev Ctries 13: 939–944.
-
27.
Lana JT , Mallipudi A , Ortiz EJ , Arevalo JH , Llanos-Cuentas A , Pan WK , 2021. Risk factors for cutaneous leishmaniasis in a high-altitude forest region of Peru. Trop Med Health 49: 40.
-
28.
Dewasurendra R , Silva H , Samaranayake N , Manamperi N , de Silva N , Karunanayake P , Senarath U , Senanayake S , Zhou G , Karunaweera N , 2022. Assessment of knowledge and perceptions on leishmaniasis: an island-wide study in Sri Lanka. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 16: e0010821.
-
29.
Iddawela D , Vithana SMP , Atapattu D , Wijekoon L , 2018. Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka. BMC Infect Dis 18: 1–9.
-
30.
da Silva Nunes W , Araújo SR , Calheiros CML , 2010. Epidemiological profile of leishmaniasis at a reference service in the state of Alagoas, Brazil, from January 2000 to September 2008. Braz J Infect Dis 14: 342–345.
-
31.
Abdellatif MZM , El-Mabrouk K , Ewis AA , 2013. An epidemiological study of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Al-jabal Al-gharbi Libya. Korean J Parasitol 51: 75–84.
-
32.
Khazaei S , Hafshejani AM , Saatchi M , Salehiniya H , Nematollahi S , 2015. Epidemiological aspects of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iran. Arch Clin Infect Dis 10: e28511.
-
33.
Picado A et al., 2010. Effect of village-wide use of long-lasting insecticidal nets on visceral leishmaniasis vectors in India and Nepal: a cluster randomized trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e587.
-
34.
Van-Thiel PPAM , Zeegelaar JE , Van-Gool T , Faber WR , Kager PA , 2011. Cutaneous leishmaniasis in three Dutch military cohorts following jungle training in Belize. Travel Med Infect Dis 9: 153–160.
-
35.
Schwartz E , Hatz C , Blum J , 2006. New world cutaneous leishmaniasis in travellers. Lancet Infect Dis 6: 342–349.
-
36.
Armijos RX , Weigel MM , Izurieta R , Racines J , Zurita C , Herrera W , Vega M , 1997. The epidemiology of cutaneous leishmaniasis in subtropical Ecuador. Trop Med Int Health 2: 140–152.
-
37.
Siriwardana Y , Zhou G , Deepachandi B , 2019. Trends in recently emerged Leishmania donovani induced cutaneous leishmaniasis, Sri Lanka, for the first 13 years. BioMed Res Int 2019: 11.
-
38.
Ministry of Finance, Department of Census and Statistics , 2019. Statistics. Sri Lanka Labour Force Survey – Annual Report 2019. Available at: http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Resource/en/LabourForce/Annual_Reports/LFS2019.pdf. Accessed May 2, 2022.
-
39.
Scott P , 2020. Long-lived skin-resident memory T cells contribute to concomitant immunity in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 12: a038059.
-
40.
Scott P , 2005. Immunologic memory in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Cell Microbiol 7: 1707–1713.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 758 | 758 | 83 |
| Full Text Views | 37 | 37 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 38 | 38 | 1 |