ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
UNAIDS , 2023. The Path That Ends AIDS: UNAIDS Global AIDS Update 2023. Geneva: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS; 2023. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Available at: https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2023/global-aids-update-2023. Accessed July 13, 2023.
-
2.
Karade S , Patil AA , Ghate M , Kulkarni SS , Kurle SN , Risbud AR , Rewari BB , Gangakhedkar RR , 2016. Short communication: limited HIV pretreatment drug resistance among adults attending free antiretroviral therapy clinic of Pune, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 32: 377–380.
-
3.
Sarafianos SG , Marchand B , Das K , Himmel DM , Parniak MA , Hughes SH , Arnold E , 2009. Structure and function of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase: molecular mechanisms of polymerization and inhibition. J Mol Biol 385: 693–713.
-
4.
Misbah M , Gupta P , Roy G , Kumar S , Husain M , 2021. Drug resistance mutations in protease gene of HIV-1 subtype C infected patient population. Virusdisease 32: 480–491.
-
5.
Novak RM et al.; Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS 058 Study Team , 2005. Prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance mutations in chronically HIV-infected, treatment-naive patients: implications for routine resistance screening before initiation of antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 40: 468–474.
-
6.
Geretti AM , 2007. Epidemiology of antiretroviral drug resistance in drug-naïve persons. Curr Opin Infect Dis 20: 22–32.
-
7.
Ross L , Lim ML , Liao Q , Wine B , Rodriguez AE , Weinberg W , Shaefer M , 2007. Prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance and resistance-associated mutations in antiretroviral therapy-naïve HIV-infected individuals from 40 United States cities. HIV Clin Trials 8: 1–8.
-
8.
Wheeler WH , Ziebell RA , Zabina H , Pieniazek D , Prejean J , Bodnar UR , Mahle KC , Heneine W , Johnson JA , Hall HI , 2010. Prevalence of transmitted drug resistance associated mutations and HIV-1 subtypes in new HIV-1 diagnoses, U.S.-2006. AIDS 24: 1203–1212.
-
9.
Frentz D , Boucher CA , van de Vijver DA , 2012. Temporal changes in the epidemiology of transmission of drug-resistant HIV-1 across the world. AIDS Rev 14: 17–27.
-
10.
Günthard HF , Calvez V , Paredes R , Pillay D , Shafer RW , Wensing AM , Jacobsen DM , Richman DD , 2019. Human immunodeficiency virus drug resistance: 2018 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. Clin Infect Dis 68: 177–187.
-
11.
WHO , 2019. HIV Drug Resistance Report 2019. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1–2.
-
12.
Torre D , Tambini R , 2002. Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in patients with HIV-1 infection: a meta-analysis study. HIV Clin Trials 3: 1–8.
-
13.
Durant J , Clevenbergh P , Halfon P , Delgiudice P , Porsin S , Simonet P , Montagne N , Boucher CA , Schapiro JM , Dellamonica P , 1999. Drug-resistance genotyping in HIV-1 therapy: the VIRADAPT randomised controlled trial. Lancet 353: 2195–2199.
-
14.
WHO , 2021. HIV Drug Resistance Report 2021. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
15.
NACO REPORT , 2022-2023 Annual Report (Department of Health and Family Welfare, Minsitry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India). Available at: https://main.mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/eng%201.pdf. Accessed February 5, 2024.
-
16.
Kantor R , Katzenstein D , 2004. Drug resistance in non-subtype B HIV-1. J Clin Virol 29: 152–159.
-
17.
WHO , 2017. Drug Resistance Report 2017. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
18.
Karlsson A , Björkman P , Bratt G , Ekvall H , Gisslen M , Sönnerborg A , Mild M , Albert J , 2012. Low prevalence of transmitted drug resistance in patients newly diagnosed with HIV-1 infection in Sweden 2003–2010. PLoS One 7: e33484.
-
19.
Murillo W , De Rivera I , Parham L , Jovel E , Palou E , Karlsson A , Albert J , 2010. Prevalence of drug resistance and importance of viral load measurements in Honduran HIV‐infected patients failing antiretroviral treatment. HIV Med 11: 95–103.
-
20.
Sinha S et al., 2012. Prevalence of HIV drug resistance mutations in HIV type 1 isolates in antiretroviral therapy naïve population from Northern India. Aids Res Treat 2012: 905823.
-
21.
Arora SK , Gupta S , Toor JS , Singla A , 2008. Drug resistance-associated genotypic alterations in the pol gene of HIV type 1 isolates in ART-naive individuals in North India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 24: 125–130.
-
22.
Kannangai R , David S , Sundaresan VC , Sachithanandham J , Mani M , Abraham OC , Pulimood SA , Rupali P , Sridharan G , 2015. Frequency of transmitted drug resistance mutations among treatment-naïve HIV-1-infected individuals at a tertiary care centre in South India. Mol Diagn Ther 19: 273–275.
-
23.
Nesakumar M , Haribabu H , Cheedarla N , Karunaianantham R , Kailasam N , Sathyamurthi P , Selvachithiram M , Tripathy SP , Hanna LE , 2019. Transmitted HIV-1 drug resistance in a treatment-naive cohort of recently infected individuals from Chennai, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 35: 775–779.
-
24.
Deshpande A , Karki S , Recordon-Pinson P , Fleury HJ , 2011. Drug resistance mutations in HIV type 1 isolates from naive patients eligible for first line antiretroviral therapy in JJ Hospital, Mumbai, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 27: 1345–1347.
-
25.
Azam M , Malik A , Rizvi M , Rai A , 2014. Zero prevalence of primary drug resistance-associated mutations to protease inhibitors in HIV-1 drug-naive patients in and around Aligarh, India. J Infect Dev Ctries 8: 79–85.
-
26.
Azam M , Malik A , Rizvi M , Rai A , 2014. Trends of drug-resistance-associated mutations in the reverse transcriptase gene of HIV type 1 isolates from North India. Arch Virol 159: 719–725.
-
27.
Kandathil AJ , Kannangai R , Abraham OC , Rupali P , Pulimood SA , Verghese VP , Grant P , Pillay D , Sridharan G , 2009. The frequency of HIV-I drug resistance mutations among treatment-naive individuals at a tertiary care centre in south India. Int J STD AIDS 20: 522–526.
-
28.
Misbah M , Roy G , Shahid M , Nag N , Kumar S , Husain M , 2016. Comparative analysis of drug resistance mutations in the human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase gene in patients who are non-responsive, responsive and naive to antiretroviral therapy. Arch Virol 161: 1101–1113.
-
29.
Neogi U , Gupta S , Palchaudhuri R , Rao SD , Shastri S , Diwan V , Laishram RS , De Costa A , Shet A , 2014. Limited evolution but increasing trends of primary non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor resistance mutations in therapy-naive HIV-1-infected individuals in India. Antiviral Ther 19: 813–818.
-
30.
Neogi U , Prarthana B , Gupta S , D’souza G , De Costa A , Kuttiatt VS , Arumugam K , Shet A , 2010. Naturally occurring polymorphisms and primary drug resistance profile among antiretroviral-naive individuals in Bangalore, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 26: 1097–1101.
-
31.
Chauhan CK , Lakshmi PVM , Sagar V , Sharma A , Arora SK , Kumar R , 2019. Primary HIV drug resistance among recently infected cases of HIV in North-West India. Aids Res Treat 2019: 1525646.
-
32.
Chaturbhuj DN et al., 2010. Transmitted HIV drug resistance among HIV-infected voluntary counseling and testing centers (VCTC) clients in Mumbai, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 26: 927–932.
-
33.
Mulu A , Lange T , Liebert UG , Maier M , 2014. Clade homogeneity and Pol gene polymorphisms in chronically HIV-1 infected antiretroviral treatment naive patients after the roll out of ART in Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis 14: 158.
-
34.
Kiros M , Alemayehu DH , Geberekidan E , Mihret A , Maier M , Abegaz WE , Mulu A , 2020. Increased HIV-1 pretreatment drug resistance with consistent clade homogeneity among ART-naive HIV-1 infected individuals in Ethiopia. Retrovirology 17: 33.
-
35.
Tanaka TSO , Leite TF , Freitas SZ , Cesar GA , de Rezende GR , Lindenberg ADSC , Guimarães ML , Motta-Castro ARC , 2019. HIV-1 molecular epidemiology, transmission clusters and transmitted drug resistance mutations in Central Brazil. Front Microbiol 10: 20.
-
36.
Deshpande A , Recordon-Pinson P , Deshmukh R , Faure M , Jauvin V , Garrigue I , Lafon ME , Fleury HJ , 2004. Molecular characterization of HIV type 1 isolates from untreated patients of Mumbai (Bombay), India, and detection of rare resistance mutations. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 20: 1032–1035.
-
37.
Lall M , Gupta R , Sen S , Kapila K , Tripathy S , Paranjape RS , 2008. Profile of primary resistance in HIV-1-infected treatment-naive individuals from Western India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 24: 987–990.
-
38.
Balakrishnan P , Kumarasamy N , Kantor R , Solomon S , Vidya S , Mayer KH , Newstein M , Thyagarajan SP , Katzenstein D , Ramratnam B , 2005. HIV type 1 genotypic variation in an antiretroviral treatment-naive population in southern India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 21: 301–305.
-
39.
Iqbal HS , Solomon SS , Madhavan V , Solomon S , Balakrishnan P , 2009. Primary HIV-1 drug resistance and polymorphic patterns among injecting drug users (IDUs) in Chennai. Southern India 8: 323–327.
-
40.
Deshpande A , Karki S , Recordon-Pinson P , Fleury HJ , 2011. Drug resistance mutations in HIV type 1 isolates from naive patients eligible for first line antiretroviral therapy in JJ Hospital, Mumbai, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 27: 1345–1347.
-
41.
Azam M , Malik A , Rizvi M , Singh S , Gupta P , Rai A , 2013. Emergence of drug resistance-associated mutations in HIV-1 subtype C protease gene in north India. Virus Genes 47: 422–428.
-
42.
Levison JH , Orrell C , Gallien S , Kuritzkes DR , Fu N , Losina E , Freedberg KA , Wood R , 2012. Virologic failure of protease inhibitor-based second-line antiretroviral therapy without resistance in a large HIV treatment program in South Africa. PLoS One 7: e32144.
-
43.
Suñé C , Brennan L , Stover DR , Klimkait T , 2004. Effect of polymorphisms on the replicative capacity of protease inhibitor-resistant HIV-1 variants under drug pressure. Clin Microbiol Infect 10: 119–126.
-
44.
Spira S , Wainberg MA , Loemba H , Turner D , Brenner BG , 2003. Impact of clade diversity on HIV-1 virulence, antiretroviral drug sensitivity and drug resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother 51: 229–240.
-
45.
Johnson VA , Brun-Vezinet F , Clotet B , Gunthard HF , Kuritzkes DR , Pillay D , Schapiro JM , Richman DD , 2008. Update of the drug resistance mutations in HIV-1. Top HIV Med 16: 138–145.
-
46.
Chakravarty J et al., 2015. Outcome of patients on second line antiretroviral therapy under programmatic condition in India. BMC Infect Dis 15: 517.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 975 | 975 | 31 |
| Full Text Views | 39 | 39 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 51 | 51 | 0 |
Prevalence of HIV Drug Resistance Mutations among Treatment-Naive People Living with HIV in a Tertiary Care Center in India
Shweta Srivastva
Shweta Srivastva
Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Jaya Chakravarty
Jaya Chakravarty
Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Anurag Kumar Kushwaha
Anurag Kumar Kushwaha
Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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ABSTRACT.
India has the third-largest number of people living with HIV (PLHIV) in the world. A national program provides free access to standard uniform antiretroviral therapy. However, the program is not monitored by comprehensive drug resistance surveys. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of HIV drug resistance mutations (DRMs) among treatment-naive PLHIV in a large antiretroviral treatment center of the national program. This cross-sectional study was done in 2017 and involved 200 consecutive treatment-naive PLHIV. A target fragment of 1,306 bp in the reverse transcriptase and protease regions was amplified. Identification of mutations and drug resistance interpretation was done by HIV Genotypic Resistance Interpretation and International Antiviral Society-USA list. Sequencing was successful in 177 samples. The majority (98.8%; 175/177) belonged to subtype C. Nineteen of 177 patients (10.7%; 95% CI: 6.2%–15.3%) had at least one major DRM. The prevalence of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) mutations was 10.2% (18/177). The most frequent mutations were E138A/K, A98G, K103N, V179D, and K101H/E. The prevalence of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) mutations was 1.1% (2/177). None of the samples had major protease inhibitor resistance mutations. The prevalence of NNRTI mutations in this study was >10%, crossing the threshold recommended by the WHO to change the NNRTI-based first-line regimen to non–NNRTI based. In 2021, the national program replaced efavirenz with dolutegravir in the first-line regimen of tenofovir, lamivudine, and efavirenz. As the majority (64%) of PLHIV in India are accessing free ART from the national program, this study highlights the need for regular nationally representative drug resistance surveys for optimizing antiretroviral regimens in the program.
Author Notes
Financial support: This work was supported by the
Authors’ addresses: Shweta Srivastva, Jaya Chakravarty, and Anurag Kumar Kushwaha, Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India, E-mails: shwetasrivastva3@gmail.com, tapadar@gmail.com, and anuragmicro27@gmail.com.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
UNAIDS , 2023. The Path That Ends AIDS: UNAIDS Global AIDS Update 2023. Geneva: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS; 2023. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Available at: https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2023/global-aids-update-2023. Accessed July 13, 2023.
-
2.
Karade S , Patil AA , Ghate M , Kulkarni SS , Kurle SN , Risbud AR , Rewari BB , Gangakhedkar RR , 2016. Short communication: limited HIV pretreatment drug resistance among adults attending free antiretroviral therapy clinic of Pune, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 32: 377–380.
-
3.
Sarafianos SG , Marchand B , Das K , Himmel DM , Parniak MA , Hughes SH , Arnold E , 2009. Structure and function of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase: molecular mechanisms of polymerization and inhibition. J Mol Biol 385: 693–713.
-
4.
Misbah M , Gupta P , Roy G , Kumar S , Husain M , 2021. Drug resistance mutations in protease gene of HIV-1 subtype C infected patient population. Virusdisease 32: 480–491.
-
5.
Novak RM et al.; Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS 058 Study Team , 2005. Prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance mutations in chronically HIV-infected, treatment-naive patients: implications for routine resistance screening before initiation of antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 40: 468–474.
-
6.
Geretti AM , 2007. Epidemiology of antiretroviral drug resistance in drug-naïve persons. Curr Opin Infect Dis 20: 22–32.
-
7.
Ross L , Lim ML , Liao Q , Wine B , Rodriguez AE , Weinberg W , Shaefer M , 2007. Prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance and resistance-associated mutations in antiretroviral therapy-naïve HIV-infected individuals from 40 United States cities. HIV Clin Trials 8: 1–8.
-
8.
Wheeler WH , Ziebell RA , Zabina H , Pieniazek D , Prejean J , Bodnar UR , Mahle KC , Heneine W , Johnson JA , Hall HI , 2010. Prevalence of transmitted drug resistance associated mutations and HIV-1 subtypes in new HIV-1 diagnoses, U.S.-2006. AIDS 24: 1203–1212.
-
9.
Frentz D , Boucher CA , van de Vijver DA , 2012. Temporal changes in the epidemiology of transmission of drug-resistant HIV-1 across the world. AIDS Rev 14: 17–27.
-
10.
Günthard HF , Calvez V , Paredes R , Pillay D , Shafer RW , Wensing AM , Jacobsen DM , Richman DD , 2019. Human immunodeficiency virus drug resistance: 2018 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. Clin Infect Dis 68: 177–187.
-
11.
WHO , 2019. HIV Drug Resistance Report 2019. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1–2.
-
12.
Torre D , Tambini R , 2002. Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in patients with HIV-1 infection: a meta-analysis study. HIV Clin Trials 3: 1–8.
-
13.
Durant J , Clevenbergh P , Halfon P , Delgiudice P , Porsin S , Simonet P , Montagne N , Boucher CA , Schapiro JM , Dellamonica P , 1999. Drug-resistance genotyping in HIV-1 therapy: the VIRADAPT randomised controlled trial. Lancet 353: 2195–2199.
-
14.
WHO , 2021. HIV Drug Resistance Report 2021. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
15.
NACO REPORT , 2022-2023 Annual Report (Department of Health and Family Welfare, Minsitry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India). Available at: https://main.mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/eng%201.pdf. Accessed February 5, 2024.
-
16.
Kantor R , Katzenstein D , 2004. Drug resistance in non-subtype B HIV-1. J Clin Virol 29: 152–159.
-
17.
WHO , 2017. Drug Resistance Report 2017. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
18.
Karlsson A , Björkman P , Bratt G , Ekvall H , Gisslen M , Sönnerborg A , Mild M , Albert J , 2012. Low prevalence of transmitted drug resistance in patients newly diagnosed with HIV-1 infection in Sweden 2003–2010. PLoS One 7: e33484.
-
19.
Murillo W , De Rivera I , Parham L , Jovel E , Palou E , Karlsson A , Albert J , 2010. Prevalence of drug resistance and importance of viral load measurements in Honduran HIV‐infected patients failing antiretroviral treatment. HIV Med 11: 95–103.
-
20.
Sinha S et al., 2012. Prevalence of HIV drug resistance mutations in HIV type 1 isolates in antiretroviral therapy naïve population from Northern India. Aids Res Treat 2012: 905823.
-
21.
Arora SK , Gupta S , Toor JS , Singla A , 2008. Drug resistance-associated genotypic alterations in the pol gene of HIV type 1 isolates in ART-naive individuals in North India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 24: 125–130.
-
22.
Kannangai R , David S , Sundaresan VC , Sachithanandham J , Mani M , Abraham OC , Pulimood SA , Rupali P , Sridharan G , 2015. Frequency of transmitted drug resistance mutations among treatment-naïve HIV-1-infected individuals at a tertiary care centre in South India. Mol Diagn Ther 19: 273–275.
-
23.
Nesakumar M , Haribabu H , Cheedarla N , Karunaianantham R , Kailasam N , Sathyamurthi P , Selvachithiram M , Tripathy SP , Hanna LE , 2019. Transmitted HIV-1 drug resistance in a treatment-naive cohort of recently infected individuals from Chennai, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 35: 775–779.
-
24.
Deshpande A , Karki S , Recordon-Pinson P , Fleury HJ , 2011. Drug resistance mutations in HIV type 1 isolates from naive patients eligible for first line antiretroviral therapy in JJ Hospital, Mumbai, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 27: 1345–1347.
-
25.
Azam M , Malik A , Rizvi M , Rai A , 2014. Zero prevalence of primary drug resistance-associated mutations to protease inhibitors in HIV-1 drug-naive patients in and around Aligarh, India. J Infect Dev Ctries 8: 79–85.
-
26.
Azam M , Malik A , Rizvi M , Rai A , 2014. Trends of drug-resistance-associated mutations in the reverse transcriptase gene of HIV type 1 isolates from North India. Arch Virol 159: 719–725.
-
27.
Kandathil AJ , Kannangai R , Abraham OC , Rupali P , Pulimood SA , Verghese VP , Grant P , Pillay D , Sridharan G , 2009. The frequency of HIV-I drug resistance mutations among treatment-naive individuals at a tertiary care centre in south India. Int J STD AIDS 20: 522–526.
-
28.
Misbah M , Roy G , Shahid M , Nag N , Kumar S , Husain M , 2016. Comparative analysis of drug resistance mutations in the human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase gene in patients who are non-responsive, responsive and naive to antiretroviral therapy. Arch Virol 161: 1101–1113.
-
29.
Neogi U , Gupta S , Palchaudhuri R , Rao SD , Shastri S , Diwan V , Laishram RS , De Costa A , Shet A , 2014. Limited evolution but increasing trends of primary non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor resistance mutations in therapy-naive HIV-1-infected individuals in India. Antiviral Ther 19: 813–818.
-
30.
Neogi U , Prarthana B , Gupta S , D’souza G , De Costa A , Kuttiatt VS , Arumugam K , Shet A , 2010. Naturally occurring polymorphisms and primary drug resistance profile among antiretroviral-naive individuals in Bangalore, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 26: 1097–1101.
-
31.
Chauhan CK , Lakshmi PVM , Sagar V , Sharma A , Arora SK , Kumar R , 2019. Primary HIV drug resistance among recently infected cases of HIV in North-West India. Aids Res Treat 2019: 1525646.
-
32.
Chaturbhuj DN et al., 2010. Transmitted HIV drug resistance among HIV-infected voluntary counseling and testing centers (VCTC) clients in Mumbai, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 26: 927–932.
-
33.
Mulu A , Lange T , Liebert UG , Maier M , 2014. Clade homogeneity and Pol gene polymorphisms in chronically HIV-1 infected antiretroviral treatment naive patients after the roll out of ART in Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis 14: 158.
-
34.
Kiros M , Alemayehu DH , Geberekidan E , Mihret A , Maier M , Abegaz WE , Mulu A , 2020. Increased HIV-1 pretreatment drug resistance with consistent clade homogeneity among ART-naive HIV-1 infected individuals in Ethiopia. Retrovirology 17: 33.
-
35.
Tanaka TSO , Leite TF , Freitas SZ , Cesar GA , de Rezende GR , Lindenberg ADSC , Guimarães ML , Motta-Castro ARC , 2019. HIV-1 molecular epidemiology, transmission clusters and transmitted drug resistance mutations in Central Brazil. Front Microbiol 10: 20.
-
36.
Deshpande A , Recordon-Pinson P , Deshmukh R , Faure M , Jauvin V , Garrigue I , Lafon ME , Fleury HJ , 2004. Molecular characterization of HIV type 1 isolates from untreated patients of Mumbai (Bombay), India, and detection of rare resistance mutations. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 20: 1032–1035.
-
37.
Lall M , Gupta R , Sen S , Kapila K , Tripathy S , Paranjape RS , 2008. Profile of primary resistance in HIV-1-infected treatment-naive individuals from Western India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 24: 987–990.
-
38.
Balakrishnan P , Kumarasamy N , Kantor R , Solomon S , Vidya S , Mayer KH , Newstein M , Thyagarajan SP , Katzenstein D , Ramratnam B , 2005. HIV type 1 genotypic variation in an antiretroviral treatment-naive population in southern India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 21: 301–305.
-
39.
Iqbal HS , Solomon SS , Madhavan V , Solomon S , Balakrishnan P , 2009. Primary HIV-1 drug resistance and polymorphic patterns among injecting drug users (IDUs) in Chennai. Southern India 8: 323–327.
-
40.
Deshpande A , Karki S , Recordon-Pinson P , Fleury HJ , 2011. Drug resistance mutations in HIV type 1 isolates from naive patients eligible for first line antiretroviral therapy in JJ Hospital, Mumbai, India. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 27: 1345–1347.
-
41.
Azam M , Malik A , Rizvi M , Singh S , Gupta P , Rai A , 2013. Emergence of drug resistance-associated mutations in HIV-1 subtype C protease gene in north India. Virus Genes 47: 422–428.
-
42.
Levison JH , Orrell C , Gallien S , Kuritzkes DR , Fu N , Losina E , Freedberg KA , Wood R , 2012. Virologic failure of protease inhibitor-based second-line antiretroviral therapy without resistance in a large HIV treatment program in South Africa. PLoS One 7: e32144.
-
43.
Suñé C , Brennan L , Stover DR , Klimkait T , 2004. Effect of polymorphisms on the replicative capacity of protease inhibitor-resistant HIV-1 variants under drug pressure. Clin Microbiol Infect 10: 119–126.
-
44.
Spira S , Wainberg MA , Loemba H , Turner D , Brenner BG , 2003. Impact of clade diversity on HIV-1 virulence, antiretroviral drug sensitivity and drug resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother 51: 229–240.
-
45.
Johnson VA , Brun-Vezinet F , Clotet B , Gunthard HF , Kuritzkes DR , Pillay D , Schapiro JM , Richman DD , 2008. Update of the drug resistance mutations in HIV-1. Top HIV Med 16: 138–145.
-
46.
Chakravarty J et al., 2015. Outcome of patients on second line antiretroviral therapy under programmatic condition in India. BMC Infect Dis 15: 517.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 975 | 975 | 31 |
| Full Text Views | 39 | 39 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 51 | 51 | 0 |