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Disinfection of Phi6, MS2, and Escherichia coli by Natural Sunlight on Healthcare Critical Surfaces
Gabrielle M. String
Gabrielle M. String
Lancon Environmental, LLC, Cambridge, Massachusetts;
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University School of Engineering, Medford, Massachusetts
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Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University School of Engineering, Medford, Massachusetts
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Yarmina Kamal
Yarmina Kamal
Lancon Environmental, LLC, Cambridge, Massachusetts;
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Christine Kelly
Christine Kelly
Lancon Environmental, LLC, Cambridge, Massachusetts;
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David M. Gute
David M. Gute
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University School of Engineering, Medford, Massachusetts
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Daniele S. Lantagne
Daniele S. Lantagne
Lancon Environmental, LLC, Cambridge, Massachusetts;
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ABSTRACT.
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation systems, commonly used to disinfect surfaces, drinking water, and air, stem from historical practice to use sunlight to disinfect household items after contagious illness. Currently, it is still recommended in viral outbreak contexts such as COVID-19, Ebola, and Marburg to expose soft surfaces to sunlight after washing with detergent or disinfecting with chlorine. However, sunlight that reaches the Earth’s surface is in the UVA/UVB wavelengths, whereas UV disinfection systems typically rely on biocidal UVC. Our goal was to fill the evidence gap on the efficacy of sunlight disinfection on surface materials common in low-resource healthcare settings by seeding four surfaces (stainless steel, nitrile, tarp, cloth) with three microorganisms (viral surrogate bacteriophages Phi6 and MS2 and Escherichia coli bacteria), with and without soil load, and exposing to three sunlight conditions (full sun, partial sun, cloudy). We conducted 144 tests in triplicate and found: solar radiation averaged 737 W/m2 (SD = 333), 519 W/m2 (SD = 65), and 149 W/m2 (SD = 24) for full sun, partial sun, and cloudy conditions; significantly more surfaces averaged ≥ 4 log10 reduction value (LRV) for Phi6 than MS2 and E. coli (P < 0.001) after full sun exposure, and no samples achieved ≥ 4 LRV for partial sun or cloudy conditions. On the basis of our results, we recommend no change to current protocols of disinfecting materials first with a 0.5% chlorine solution then moving to sunlight to dry. Additional field-based research is recommended to understand sunlight disinfection efficacy against pathogenic organisms on healthcare relevant surfaces during actual outbreak contexts.
Author Notes
Financial support: This study was made possible by the generous support of the American people through the
Authors’ addresses: Gabrielle M. String, Lancon Environmental, LLC, Cambridge, MA, and Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, E-mail: gabrielle.string@tufts.edu. Yarmina Kamal, Christine Kelly, and Daniele S. Lantagne, Lancon Environmental, LLC, Cambridge, MA, E-mails: yarminakamal@gmail.com, christine.kelly@tufts.edu, and daniele.lantagne@tufts.edu. David M. Gute, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, E-mail: david.gute@tufts.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Howard G et al., 2020. COVID-19: urgent actions, critical reflections and future relevance of ‘WaSH’: lessons for the current and future pandemics. J Water Health 37: 613–630.
-
2.
Yates T , Vujcic JA , Joseph ML , Gallandat K , Lantagne D , 2018. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions in outbreak response: a synthesis of evidence. Waterlines 37: 5–30.
-
3.
WHO , 2020. Water, Sanitation, Hygiene, and Waste Management for SARS-CoV-2, the Virus That Causes COVID-19: Interim Guidance (Report WHO/2019-nCoV/IPC_WASH/2020.4). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization HQ.
-
4.
CDC , 2020. Cleaning and Disinfecting Your Home: Everyday Steps and Extra Steps When Someone is Sick. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/disinfecting-your-home.html. Accessed February 11, 2020.
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7.
Kowalski W , 2010. Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation Handbook: UVGI for Air and Surface Disinfection. Berlin, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media.
-
8.
Meulemans CCE , 1987. The basic principles of UV-disinfection of water. Ozone Sci Eng 9: 299–313.
-
9.
Reed NG , 2010. The history of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation for air disinfection. Public Health Rep 125: 15–27.
-
10.
Raeiszadeh M , Adeli B , 2020. A critical review on ultraviolet disinfection systems against COVID-19 outbreak: applicability, validation, and safety considerations. ACS Photonics 7: 2941–2951.
-
11.
Hessling M , Haag R , Sieber N , Vatter P , 2021. The impact of far-UVC radiation (200–230 nm) on pathogens, cells, skin, and eyes—a collection and analysis of a hundred years of data. GMS Hyg Infect Control 16: Doc07.
-
12.
Downes A , Blunt TP , 1877. The influence of light upon the development of bacteria 1. Nature 16: 218.
-
13.
Nelson KL et al., 2018. Sunlight-mediated inactivation of health-relevant microorganisms in water: a review of mechanisms and modeling approaches. Environ Sci Process Impacts 20: 1089–1122.
-
14.
Anderson RK , 1918. Disinfection after communicable disease. Can Med Assoc J 8: 1080–1083.
-
15.
Schneider F , 1913. Disinfection and disinfectants. Public Health J 4: 300–302.
-
16.
Russell Jas B , 1884. On disinfection. Glasg Med J 22: 401–412.
-
17.
Ravenel MP , Smith KW , 1909. Disinfection and Commercial Disinfectants. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, Agricultural Experiment Station.
-
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U.S. Food & Drug Administration , 2021. UV Lights and Lamps: Ultraviolet-C Radiation, Disinfection, and Coronavirus. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-covid-19-and-medical-devices/uv-lights-and-lamps-ultraviolet-c-radiation-disinfection-and-coronavirus. Accessed February 1, 2021.
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World Health Organization , Radiation: Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/radiation-ultraviolet-(uv). Accessed February 26, 2022.
-
20.
Fahimipour AK et al., 2018. Daylight exposure modulates bacterial communities associated with household dust. Microbiome 6: 175.
-
21.
Amichai B , Grunwald MH , Davidovici B , Shemer A , 2014. “Sunlight is said to be the best of disinfectants”: the efficacy of sun exposure for reducing fungal contamination in used clothes. Isr Med Assoc J 16: 431–433.
-
22.
Sharma SK , Mishra M , Mudgal SK , 2020. Efficacy of cloth face mask in prevention of novel coronavirus infection transmission: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Educ Health Promot 9: 192.
-
23.
Thomson P , 2007. Ebola & Marburg Outbreak Control Guidance Manual Version 2.0. Brussels, Belgium: Médecins Sans Frontières.
-
24.
Gallandat K , Lantagne D , 2017. Selection of a Biosafety Level 1 (BSL-1) surrogate to evaluate surface disinfection efficacy in Ebola outbreaks: comparison of four bacteriophages. PLoS One 12: e0177943.
-
25.
String GM , White MR , Gute DM , Mühlberger E , Lantagne DS , 2021. Selection of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate for use in surface disinfection efficacy studies with chlorine and antimicrobial surfaces. Environ Sci Technol Lett 8: 995–1001.
-
26.
Wood JP , Richter W , Sunderman M , Calfee MW , Serre S , Mickelsen L , 2020. Evaluating the environmental persistence and inactivation of MS2 bacteriophage and the presumed Ebola virus surrogate Phi6 using low concentration hydrogen peroxide vapor. Environ Sci Technol 54: 3581–3590.
-
27.
Motlagh AM , Yang Z , 2019. Detection and occurrence of indicator organisms and pathogens. Water Environ Res 91: 1402–1408.
-
28.
Kolus RC , Zahrah M , String G , Lantagne DS , 2021. Culturable E. coli as surrogate for culturable V. cholerae in surface disinfection testing with chlorine. J Environ Eng 147: 06021002.
-
29.
Poranen MM , Mäntynen S , ICTV Report Consortium , 2017. ICTV virus taxonomy profile: Cystoviridae. J Gen Virol 98: 2423–2424.
-
30.
Laurinavičius S , Käkelä R , Bamford DH , Somerharju P , 2004. The origin of phospholipids of the enveloped bacteriophage Phi6. Virology 326: 182–190.
-
31.
Vidaver AK , Koski RK , Van Etten JL , 1973. Bacteriophage φ6: a lipid-containing virus of Pseudomonas phaseolicola1. J Virol 11: 799–805.
-
32.
Aquino de Carvalho N , Stachler EN , Cimabue N , Bibby K , 2017. Evaluation of Phi6 persistence and suitability as an enveloped virus surrogate. Environ Sci Technol 51: 8692–8700.
-
33.
Ford BE , 2015. Pseudomonas Bacteriophage Phi6 as a Model for Virus Emergence. New York, NY: City University of New York.
-
34.
Casanova LM , Waka B , 2013. Survival of a surrogate virus on N95 respirator material. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 34: 1334–1335.
-
35.
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