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Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
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1.
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2.
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Japanese Encephalitis among Adults: A Review
Susan L. Hills
Susan L. Hills
Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado;
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M. Netravathi
M. Netravathi
Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, India;
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Tom Solomon
Tom Solomon
The Pandemic Institute and The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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ABSTRACT.
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is becoming an increasingly important issue among adults. The reasons for this are multifactorial. During the past decades, new areas of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) transmission have occurred in several locations, most notably in a markedly expanded area of Australia during 2021–2022. When JEV enters new areas, cases in adults frequently occur. This is unlike the typical pattern in endemic areas where the burden of disease is in children because most adults are protected through natural immunity following earlier exposure to the virus. Even in endemic areas, JEV has become relatively more important in adults because improved JE control through childhood immunization programs has resulted in a substantial decrease in pediatric JE cases and thus more prominence of adult JE cases. Finally, increases in tourism to JE risk areas have resulted in more exposure of adult travelers, who are usually non-immune, to infection in JE risk areas. In this review we describe the increasing importance of JE in adults in some areas and then consider the comparative clinical presentation and severity of illness among children and adults.
Author Notes
Disclaimer: The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Authors’ addresses: Susan L Hills, Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, E-mail: shills@cdc.gov. M. Netravathi, Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, India, E-mail: sundernetra@yahoo.co.in. Tom Solomon, The Pandemic Institute and The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom, E-mail: tsolomon@liverpool.ac.uk.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Heffelfinger JD et al., 2017. Japanese encephalitis surveillance and immunization - Asia and Western Pacific regions, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 66: 579–583.
-
2.
Mackenzie JS , Williams DT , van den Hurk AF , Smith DW , Currie BJ , 2022. Japanese encephalitis virus: the emergence of genotype IV in Australia and its potential endemicity. Viruses 14: 2480.
-
3.
Buescher EL , Scherer WF , Rosenberg MZ , Gresser I , Hardy JL , Bullock HR , 1959. Ecologic studies of Japanese encephalitis virus in Japan. II. Mosquito infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 8: 651–664.
-
4.
Gould DJ , Edelman R , Grossman RA , Nisalak A , Sullivan MF , 1974. Study of Japanese encephalitis virus in Chiangmai Valley, Thailand. IV. Vector studies. Am J Epidemiol 100: 49–56.
-
5.
Solomon T , Dung NM , Kneen R , Gainsborough M , Vaughn DW , Khanh VT , 2000. Japanese encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 68: 405–415.
-
6.
World Health Organization , 2015. Japanese encephalitis vaccines: WHO position paper – February 2015. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 90: 69–87.
-
7.
Li YX et al., 2011. Japanese encephalitis, Tibet, China. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 934–936.
-
8.
Bhattachan A , Amatya S , Sedai TR , Upreti SR , Partridge J , 2009. Japanese encephalitis in hill and mountain districts, Nepal. Emerg Infect Dis 15: 1691–1692.
-
9.
Kumar Pant D , Tenzin T , Chand R , Kumar Sharma B , Raj Bist P , 2017. Spatio-temporal epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis in Nepal, 2007–2015. PLoS One 12: e0180591.
-
10.
Kumar G , Pasi S , Ojha VP , Dhiman RC , 2020. Entomological investigation of an outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in Solan district, Himachal Pradesh. J Vector Borne Dis 57: 301–306.
-
11.
Kumari R , Kumar K , Rawat A , Singh G , Yadav NK , Chauhan LS , 2013. First indigenous transmission of Japanese encephalitis in urban areas of National Capital Territory of Delhi, India. Trop Med Int Health 18: 743–749.
-
12.
Hanna JN , Ritchie SA , Phillips DA , Lee JM , Hills SL , van den Hurk AF , Pyke AT , Johansen CA , Mackenzie JS , 1999. Japanese encephalitis in north Queensland, Australia, 1998. Med J Aust 170: 533–536.
-
13.
Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care , 2023. Japanese Encephalitis. Current Status. Available at: https://www.health.gov.au/health-alerts/japanese-encephalitis-virus-jev/japanese-encephalitis-virus-jev. Accessed January 13, 2023.
-
14.
NSW Health , 2022. First Japanese Encephalitis Case This Summer Identified. Available at: https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/news/Pages/20221222_00.aspx. Accessed January 13, 2023.
-
15.
Keiser J , Maltese MF , Erlanger TE , Bos R , Tanner M , Singer BH , Utzinger J , 2005. Effect of irrigated rice agriculture on Japanese encephalitis, including challenges and opportunities for integrated vector management. Acta Trop 95: 40–57.
-
16.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , 2022. Food and Agriculture Data. Available at: www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home. Accessed November 5, 2022.
-
17.
Le Flohic G , Porphyre V , Barbazan P , Gonzalez JP , 2013. Review of climate, landscape, and viral genetics as drivers of the Japanese encephalitis virus ecology. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 7: e2208.
-
18.
Paul WS , Moore PS , Karabatsos N , Flood SP , Yamada S , Jackson T , Tsai TF , 1993. Outbreak of Japanese encephalitis on the island of Saipan, 1990. J Infect Dis 167: 1053–1058.
-
19.
Ritchie SA , Rochester W , 2001. Wind-blown mosquitoes and introduction of Japanese encephalitis into Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 7: 900–903.
-
20.
Hanna J , Ritchie S , Loewenthal M , Tiley S , Phillips D , Broom A , Smith DW , 1995. Probable Japanese encephalitis acquired in the Torres Strait. Commun Dis Intell 19: 206–207.
-
21.
Borah J , Dutta P , Khan SA , Mahanta J , 2011. A comparison of clinical features of Japanese encephalitis virus infection in the adult and pediatric age group with acute encephalitis syndrome. J Clin Virol 52: 45–49.
-
22.
Patgiri SJ , Borthakur AK , Borkakoty B , Saikia L , Dutta R , Phukan SK , 2014. An appraisal of clinicopathological parameters in Japanese encephalitis and changing epidemiological trends in upper Assam, India. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 57: 400–406.
-
23.
Hills SL , Griggs AC , Fischer M , 2010. Japanese encephalitis in travelers from non-endemic countries, 1973–2008. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 930–936.
-
24.
Zhu A , Petrakis N , Gaber M , Mason D , Clifford V , Kelly J , 2022. A case of Japanese encephalitis in a Victorian infant. Med J Aust 217: 79–80.
-
25.
Joshi D , 1995. Current status of Japanese encephalitis in Nepal. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 26: 34–40.
-
26.
Zimmerman MD , Scott RM , Vaughn DW , Rajbhandari S , Nisalak A , Shrestha MP , 1997. Short report: an outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in Kathmandu, Nepal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 57: 283–284.
-
27.
Partridge J , Ghimire P , Sedai T , Bista MB , Banerjee M , 2007. Endemic Japanese encephalitis in the Kathmandu valley, Nepal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 1146–1149.
-
28.
Hsu LC , Chen YJ , Hsu FK , Huang JH , Chang CM , Chou P , Lin IF , Chang FY , 2014. The incidence of Japanese encephalitis in Taiwan–a population-based study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8: e3030.
-
29.
Kono R , Kim KH , 1969. Comparative epidemiological features of Japanese encephalitis in the Republic of Korea, China (Taiwan) and Japan. Bull World Health Organ 40: 263–277.
-
30.
Igarashi A , 2002. Control of Japanese encephalitis in Japan: immunization of humans and animals, and vector control. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 267: 139–52.
-
31.
Arai S , Matsunaga Y , Takasaki T , Tanaka-Taya K , Taniguchi K , Okabe N , Kurane I , Vaccine Preventable Diseases Surveillance Program of Japan , 2008. Japanese encephalitis: surveillance and elimination effort in Japan from 1982 to 2004. Jpn J Infect Dis 61: 333–338.
-
32.
Lee EJ , Cha GW , Ju YR , Han MG , Lee WJ , Jeong YE , 2016. Prevalence of neutralizing antibodies to Japanese encephalitis virus among high-risk age groups in South Korea, 2010. PLoS One 11: e0147841.
-
33.
Umenai T , Krzysko R , Bektimirov TA , Assaad FA , 1985. Japanese encephalitis: current worldwide status. Bull World Health Organ 63: 625–631.
-
34.
Chang YK , Chang HL , Wu HS , Chen KT , 2017. Epidemiological features of Japanese encephalitis in Taiwan from 2000 to 2014. Am J Trop Med Hyg 96: 382–388.
-
35.
Wu YC , Huang YS , Chien LJ , Lin TL , Yueh YY , Tseng WL , Chang KJ , Wang GR , 1999. The epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis on Taiwan during 1966–1997. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61: 78–84.
-
36.
Lee DW , Choe YJ , Kim JH , Song KM , Cho H , Bae GR , Lee JK , 2012. Epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis in South Korea, 2007-2010. Int J Infect Dis 16: e448–e452.
-
37.
Sohn YM , 2000. Japanese encephalitis immunization in South Korea: past, present, and future. Emerg Infect Dis 6: 17–24.
-
38.
Kwak BO , Hong YJ , Kim DH , 2022. Changes in age-specific seroprevalence of Japanese encephalitis virus and impact of Japanese encephalitis vaccine in Korea. Clin Exp Pediatr 65: 108–114.
-
39.
Sunwoo JS , Jung KH , Lee ST , Lee SK , Chu K , 2016. Reemergence of Japanese encephalitis in South Korea, 2010–2015. Emerg Infect Dis 22: 1841–1843.
-
40.
Ministry of Health Malaysia , 2016. Japanese Encephalitis in Malaysia. World Health Organization Seventh Biregional Meeting on Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control. Manila, Philippines, August 30–September 1, 2016.
-
41.
Ministry of Health Sri Lanka , 2016. Impact of Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine Introduction and Experience with Adverse Events Following Immunization in Sri Lanka. World Health Organization Seventh Biregional Meeting on Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control, August 30–September 1, 2016, Manila, Philippines.
-
42.
Wang LH et al., 2007. Japanese encephalitis outbreak, Yuncheng, China, 2006. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 1123–1125.
-
43.
Zheng Y , Li M , Wang H , Liang G , 2012. Japanese encephalitis and Japanese encephalitis virus in mainland China. Rev Med Virol 22: 301–322.
-
44.
Li X , Gao X , Fu S , Wang H , Lu Z , He Y , Lei W , Liang G , 2018. An outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in adults in northern China, 2013: a population-based study. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 19: 26–34.
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