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Escherichia coli Contamination of Water for Human Consumption and Its Associated Factors in Peru: A Cross-Sectional Study
Akram Hernández-Vásquez
Akram Hernández-Vásquez
Centro de Excelencia en Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales en Salud, Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola, Lima, Peru;
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Fabriccio J. Visconti-Lopez
Fabriccio J. Visconti-Lopez
Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru;
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Rodrigo Vargas-Fernández
Rodrigo Vargas-Fernández
Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru
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ABSTRACT.
The objective of the study was to determine the factors associated with the presence of Escherichia coli contamination in water supplies for human consumption in Peru. A secondary analysis of the Food and Nutrition Surveillance by Life Stages survey (VIANEV) of 2017–2018 was performed. The presence of E. coli contamination in the water samples for human consumption of the households evaluated was defined as a dependent variable. A supply was considered contaminated when there was at least 1 colony-forming unit of E. coli in 100 mL of water for human consumption. Data from 886 participants were analyzed. It was found that 25.2% of household water supply sources for human consumption had E. coli at the time of sampling. Water reservoirs such as buckets or other containers (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR]: 1.15; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.18–1.93), households belonging to a poor wealth quintile (aPR: 1.82; 95% CI: 1.01–3.25), residing in a rural area (aPR: 1.36; 95% CI: 1.01–1.83), and having a low human development index (aPR: 2.12; 95% CI: 1.15–3.91) were more likely to contain E. coli in water supplies for human consumption. However, households with chlorine concentrations of 0.5 mg/L or more in water (aPR: 0.20; 95% CI: 0.11–0.33) and with household members with a higher education (aPR: 0.67; 95% CI: 0.45–0.99) were less likely to contain E. coli in drinking-water supplies. From 2017 to 2018, one in four Peruvians had contamination by E. coli in the water supply to their homes, which was associated with sociodemographic factors, management, and water treatment.
Author Notes
Authors’ addresses: Akram Hernández-Vásquez, Centro de Excelencia en Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales en Salud, Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola, Lima, Peru, E-mail: ahernandez@usil.edu.pe. Fabriccio J. Visconti-Lopez, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru, E-mail: fabricciovisco@gmail.com. Rodrigo Vargas-Fernández, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru, E-mail: jvargasf@cientifica.edu.pe.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
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1.
Boelee E , Geerling G , van der Zaan B , Blauw A , Vethaak AD , 2019. Water and health: from environmental pressures to integrated responses. Acta Trop 193: 217–226.
-
2.
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3.
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4.
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5.
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6.
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7.
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8.
Savageau MA , 1983. Escherichia coli habitats, cell types, and molecular mechanisms of gene control. Am Nat 122: 732–744.
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9.
Devane ML , Moriarty E , Weaver L , Cookson A , Gilpin B , 2020. Fecal indicator bacteria from environmental sources; strategies for identification to improve water quality monitoring. Water Res 185: 116204.
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10.
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11.
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19.
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20.
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21.
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22.
Heitzinger K , Rocha CA , Quick RE , Montano SM , Tilley DH , Mock CN , Carrasco AJ , Cabrera RM , Hawes SE , 2015. “Improved” but not necessarily safe: An assessment of fecal contamination of household drinking water in rural Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 93: 501–508.
-
23.
Sinharoy SS , Pittluck R , Clasen T , 2019. Review of drivers and barriers of water and sanitation policies for urban informal settlements in low-income and middle-income countries. Util Policy 60: 100957.
-
24.
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Vannavong N , Overgaard HJ , Chareonviriyaphap T , Dada N , Rangsin R , Sibounhom A , Stenström TA , Seidu R , 2018. Assessing factors of E. coli contamination of household drinking water in suburban and rural Laos and Thailand. Water Supply 18: 886–900.
-
27.
Getachew A , Tadie A , Chercos DH , Guadu T , 2018. Level of faecal coliform contamination of drinking water sources and its associated risk factors in rural settings of north Gondar Zone, Ethiopia: a cross-sectional community based study. Ethiop J Health Sci 28: 227–234.
-
28.
Gizachew M , Admasie A , Wegi C , Assefa E , 2020. Bacteriological contamination of drinking water supply from protected water sources to point of use and water handling practices among beneficiary households of Boloso Sore Woreda, Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia. Int J Microbiol 2020: 5340202.
-
29.
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-
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Dada N , Vannavong N , Seidu R , Lenhart A , Stenström TA , Chareonviriyaphap T , Overgaard HJ , 2013. Relationship between Aedes aegypti production and occurrence of Escherichia coli in domestic water storage containers in rural and sub-urban villages in Thailand and Laos. Acta Trop 126: 177–185.
-
31.
Loyola S et al., 2020. Fecal contamination of drinking water was associated with diarrheal pathogen carriage among children younger than 5 years in three Peruvian rural communities. Am J Trop Med Hyg 102: 1279–1285.
-
32.
Torres-Slimming PA , Wright C , Carcamo CP , Garcia PJ , Research Team I , Harper SL , 2019. Achieving the sustainable development goals: A mixed methods study of health-related water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) for indigenous shawi in the Peruvian Amazon. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16: 2429.
-
33.
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-
34.
Ministerio de Salud , 2017. Directiva Sanitaria para la Promocionar el lavado de manos social como práctica saludable en el Perú. Dirección General de Intervenciones Estratégicas en Salud Pública. Lima Peru: Ministerio de Salud.
-
35.
Ministerio de Vivienda, Construcción y Saneamiento , 2021. Efecto del Programa Nacional de Saneamiento Rural en las prácticas de higiene: revisión sistemática y evaluación cuantitativa. Lima, Peru: Oficina de Evaluación del Impacto.
-
36.
Hartinger SM , Lanata CF , Hattendorf J , Gil AI , Verastegui H , Ochoa T , Mäusezahl D , 2011. A community randomised controlled trial evaluating a home-based environmental intervention package of improved stoves, solar water disinfection and kitchen sinks in rural Peru: rationale, trial design and baseline findings. Contemp Clin Trials 32: 864–873.
-
37.
Gil AI , Lanata CF , Hartinger SM , Mäusezahl D , Padilla B , Ochoa TJ , Lozada M , Pineda I , Verastegui H , 2014. Fecal contamination of food, water, hands, and kitchen utensils at the household level in rural areas of Peru. J Environ Health 76: 102–106.
-
38.
Cronin AA , Odagiri M , Arsyad B , Nuryetty MT , Amannullah G , Santoso H , Darundiyah K , Nasution N ’Aisyah , 2017. Piloting water quality testing coupled with a national socioeconomic survey in Yogyakarta province, Indonesia, towards tracking of Sustainable Development Goal 6. Int J Hyg Environ Health 220: 1141–1151.
-
39.
Thiam S , Diène AN , Fuhrimann S , Winkler MS , Sy I , Ndione JA , Schindler C , Vounatsou P , Utzinger J , Faye O , Cissé G , 2017. Prevalence of diarrhoea and risk factors among children under five years old in Mbour, Senegal: a cross-sectional study. Infect Dis Poverty 6: 109.
-
40.
Kumi-Kyereme A , Amo-Adjei J , 2015. Household wealth, residential status and the incidence of diarrhoea among children under-five years in Ghana. JEGH 6: 131.
-
41.
Hernández-Vasquéz A , Rojas-Roque C , Marques Sales D , Santero M , Bendezu-Quispe G , Barrientos-Gutiérrez T , Miranda JJ , 2021. Inequalities in access to safe drinking water in Peruvian households according to city size: an analysis from 2008 to 2018. Int J Equity Health 20: 133.
-
42.
Malika NM , Barbagelatta G , Penny M , Reynolds KA , Sinclair R , 2021. Impact of housing and infrastructure on handwashing in Peru. Int Health 13: 615–623.
-
43.
Mesclier É , Piron M , Gluski P , 2016. Territories and inclusion in the peripheries of Lima (Peru): An exploratory approach based on data about water supply and sewage disposal. L’Espace Géographique Tome 44: 273–288.
-
44.
Ministerio de Vivienda, Construcción y Saneamiento , 2022. Programa Agua Segura para Lima y Callao. Memoria Anual 2021. Lima. Peru: Ministerio de Vivienda.
-
45.
Andualem Z , Dagne H , Azene ZN , Taddese AA , Dagnew B , Fisseha R , Muluneh AG , Yeshaw Y , 2021. Households access to improved drinking water sources and toilet facilities in Ethiopia: a multilevel analysis based on 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey. BMJ Open 11: e042071.
-
46.
Adzawla W , Alhassan H , Jongare AI , 2020. Explaining the effects of socioeconomic and housing characteristics on the choice of toilet facilities among Ghanaian households. J Environ Public Health 2020: 4036045.
-
47.
Ko SH , Sakai H , 2022. Water sanitation, hygiene and the prevalence of diarrhea in the rural areas of the delta region of Myanmar. J Water Health 20: 149–156.
-
48.
Ministerio de Vivienda, Construcción y Saneamiento , 2018. DATASS: Modelo para la toma de decisiones en Saneamiento Sistema de Diagnóstico sobre Abastecimiento de Agua y Saneamiento en el Ámbito Rural. Autoridad Nacional del Agua. Lima, Peru: Ministerio de Vivienda.
-
49.
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