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Polymerase Chain Reaction-Based Malaria Diagnosis Can Be Increasingly Adopted during Current Phase of Malaria Elimination in India
Manju Rahi
Manju Rahi
Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India;
AcSIR, New Delhi, India
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AcSIR, New Delhi, India
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Rishu Sharma
Rishu Sharma
Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India;
AcSIR, New Delhi, India
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AcSIR, New Delhi, India
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Poonam Saroha
Poonam Saroha
Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India;
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Rini Chaturvedi
Rini Chaturvedi
International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India;
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Praveen K. Bharti
Praveen K. Bharti
Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India;
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Amit Sharma
Amit Sharma
Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India;
International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India;
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International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India;
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ABSTRACT.
Despite commendable progress in control of malaria in India and other countries, there are hidden reservoirs of parasites in human hosts that continually feed malaria transmission. Submicroscopic infections are a significant proportion in low-endemic settings like India, and these infections possess transmission potential. Hence, these reservoirs of infection add to the existing roadblocks for malaria elimination. It is crucial that this submerged burden of malaria is detected and treated to curtail further transmission. The currently used diagnostic tools, including the so-called “gold standard” microscopy, are incapable of detecting these submicroscopic infections and thus are suboptimal. It is an opportune time to usher in more sensitive molecular tools like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for routine diagnosis at all levels of healthcare as an additional diagnostic tool in routine settings. PCR assays have been developed into user-friendly formats for field diagnostics and are near-point-of-collection. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic in India, these are being used rampantly across the country. The facilities created for COVID-19 diagnosis can easily be co-opted and harnessed for malaria diagnosis to augment surveillance by the inclusion of molecular techniques like PCR in the routine national malaria control program.
Author Notes
Authors’ addresses: Manju Rahi, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India, E-mail: drmanjurahi@gmail.com. Rishu Sharma and Poonam Saroha, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India, E-mails: rishi.rishu2231@gmail.com and sarohapoonam06@gmail.com. Rini Chaturvedi, International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India, E-mail: rini.chaturvedi@gmail.com. Praveen K. Bharti, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India, E-mail: saprapbs@yahoo.co.in. Amit Sharma, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India, and International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India, E-mail: directornimr@gmail.com.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
World Health Organization , 2020. World Malaria Report 2020. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
2.
NVBDCP , 2019. National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme. Available at: https://nvbdcp.gov.in/index1.php?lang=1&level=1&sublinkid=5784&lid=3689. Accessed 2019.
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3.
Whittaker C , Slater H , Nash R , Bousema T , Drakeley C , Ghani AC , Okell LC , 2021. Global patterns of submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection: insights from a systematic review and meta-analysis of population surveys. Lancet Microbe 2: e366–e374.
-
4.
Barry A , Bradley J , Stone W , Guelbeogo MW , Lanke K , Ouedraogo A , Soulama I , 2021. Higher gametocyte production and mosquito infectivity in chronic compared to incident Plasmodium falciparum infections. Nat Commun 12: 2443.
-
5.
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6.
Anon , 2013. National Drug Policy on Malaria 2013. India: Directorate of National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme, Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India.
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7.
Zimmerman PA , Howes RE , 2015. Malaria diagnosis for malaria elimination. Curr Opin Infect Dis 28: 446–454.
-
8.
Chaturvedi R , Deora N , Bhandari D , Parvez S , Sinha A , Sharma A , 2021. Trends of neglected Plasmodium species infection in humans over the past century in India. One Health 11: 100190.
-
9.
Park HS , Rinehart MT , Walzer KA , Chi J-TA , Wax A , 2016. Automated detection of P. falciparum using machine learning algorithms with quantitative phase images of unstained cells. PLoS One 11: e0163045.
-
10.
Linder N , Turkki R , Wallliander M , Martensson A , Diwan V , Rahtu E , Pietikainen M , Lundin M , Lundin J , 2014. A malaria diagnostic tool based on computer vision screening and visualization of Plasmodium falciparum candidate areas in digitized blood smears. PLoS One 9: e104855.
-
11.
Moody AH , Chiodini PL , 2002. Non-microscopic method for malaria diagnosis using OptiMAL IT, a second-generation dipstick for malaria pLDH antigen detection. Br J Biomed Sci 59: 228–231.
-
12.
Ndao M , Bandyayera E , Kokoskin E , Gyorkos TW , MacLean JD , 2004. Comparison of blood smear, antigen detection, and nested-PCR methods for screening refugees from regions where malaria is endemic after a malaria outbreak in Quebec, Canada. J Clin Microbiol 42: 2694–2700.
-
13.
Hayward RE , Sullivan DJ , Day KP , 2000. Plasmodium falciparum: histidine-rich protein II is expressed during gametocyte development. Exp Parasitol 96: 139–146.
-
14.
Rock EP , Marsh K , Saul AJ , Wellems TE , Taylor DW , Maloy WL , Howard RJ , 1987. Comparative analysis of the Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich proteins HRP-I, HRP-II and HRP-III in malaria parasites of diverse origin. Parasitology 95: 209–227.
-
15.
Howard RJ , Uni S , Aikawa M , Aley SB , Leech JH , Lew AM , Wellems TE , Rener J , Taylor DW , 1986. Secretion of a malarial histidine-rich protein (Pf HRP II) from Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Cell Biol (Henderson NV) 103: 11269–11277.
-
16.
McMorrow ML , Aidoo M , Kachur SP , 2011. Malaria rapid diagnostic tests in elimination settings—can they find the last parasite? Clin Microbiol Infect 17: 1624–1631.
-
17.
Price RN , Tjitra E , Guerra CA , Yeung S , White NJ , Anstey NM , 2007. Vivax malaria: neglected and not benign. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 79–87.
-
18.
Verma AK , Bharti PK , Das A , 2018. HRP-2 deletion: a hole in the ship of malaria elimination. Lancet Infect Dis 18: 826–827.
-
19.
Kojom LP , Singh V , 2020. Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum field isolates with deletions in histidine-rich protein 2 and 3 genes in context with sub-Saharan Africa and India: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Malar J 19: 46.
-
20.
Pati P , Dhangadamajhi G , Bal M , Ranjit M , 2018. High proportions of pfhrp2 gene deletion and performance of HRP2-based rapid diagnostic test in Plasmodium falciparum field isolates of Odisha. Malar J 17: 394.
-
21.
World Health Organization , 2018. Malaria Surveillance, Monitoring and Evaluation: A Reference Manual. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
22.
Hofmann N , Mwingira F , Shekalaghe S , Robinson LJ , Mueller I , Felger I , 2015. Ultra-sensitive detection of Plasmodium falciparum by amplification of multi-copy subtelomeric targets. PLoS Med 12: e1001788.
-
23.
Jacobson JO , Cueto C , Smith JL , Hwang J , Gosling R , Bennett A , 2017. Surveillance and response for high-risk populations: what can malaria elimination programmes learn from the experience of HIV? Malar J 16: 33.
-
24.
Han TZ , Han KT , Aye KH , Hlaing T , Thant KZ , Vythilingam I , 2017. Comparison of microscopy and PCR for the detection of human Plasmodium species and Plasmodium knowlesi in southern Myanmar. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 7: 680–685.
-
25.
Mbanefo A , Kumar N , 2020. Evaluation of malaria diagnostic methods as a key for successful control and elimination programs. Trop Med Infect Dis 5: 102.
-
26.
World health Organization , 2021. WHO Guidelines for Malaria. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
27.
Recht J , Siqueira AM , Monteiro WM , Herrera S , Herrera S , Lacerda MVG , 2017. Malaria in Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela: current challenges in malaria control and elimination. Malar J 16: 273.
-
28.
Ranjha R , Sharma A , 2021. Forest malaria: the prevailing obstacle for malaria control and elimination in India. BMJ Glob Health 6: e005391.
-
29.
Okell LC , Bousema T , Griffin JT , Ouédraogo AL , Ghani AC , Drakeley CJ , 2012. Factors determining the occurrence of submicroscopic malaria infections and their relevance for control. Nat Commun 3: 1237.
-
30.
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