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1.
Sharara SL, Kanj SS, 2014. War and infectious diseases: challenges of the Syrian civil war. PLoS Pathog 10: e1004438.
-
2.
Salam N, Al-Shaqha WM, Azzi A, 2014. Leishmaniasis in the middle east: incidence and epidemiology. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8: e3208.
-
3.
Du R, Hotez PJ, Al-Salem WS, Acosta-Serrano A, 2016. Old world cutaneous leishmaniasis and refugee crises in the middle east and north Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: e0004545.
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4.
Alvar J, Velez ID, Bern C, Herrero M, Desjeux P, Cano J, Jannin J, den Boer M, 2012. Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence. PLoS One 7: e35671.
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Tayeh A, Jalouk L, Cairncross S, 1997. Twenty years of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Aleppo, Syria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91: 657–659.
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7.
Abazid N, Jones C, Davies CR, 2012. Knowledge, attitudes and practices about leishmaniasis among cutaneous leishmaniasis patients in Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic. East Mediterr Health J 18: 7–14.
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8.
Gossage SM, Rogers ME, Bates PA, 2003. Two separate growth phases during the development of Leishmania in sand flies: implications for understanding the life cycle. Int J Parasitol 33: 1027–1034.
-
9.
Haddad N, Saliba H, Altawil A, Villinsky J, Al-Nahhas S, 2015. Cutaneous leishmaniasis in the central provinces of Hama and Edlib in Syria: vector identification and parasite typing. Parasit Vectors 8: 524.
-
10.
Rehman K, Walochnik J, Mischlinger J, Alassil B, Allan R, Ramharter M, 2018. Leishmaniasis in northern Syria during civil war. Emerg Infect Dis 24: 1973–1981.
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11.
Rioux JA, Dereure J, Khiami A, Pratlong F, Sirdar K, Lambert M, 1990. [Ecoepidemiology of leishmaniasis in Syria. 1. Leishmania major Yakimoff and Schokhor (Kinetoplastida-Trypanosomatidae) infestation of Psammomys obesus cretzschmar (Rodentia-Gerbillidae)]. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 65: 203–207.
-
12.
Abdellatif MZM, El-Mabrouk K, Ewis AA, 2013. An epidemiological study of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Al-jabal Al-gharbi, Libya. Korean J Parasitol 51: 75–84.
-
13.
Feiz-Haddad M-H, Kassiri H, Kasiri N, Panahandeh A, Lotfi M, 2015. Prevalence and epidemiologic profile of acute cutaneous leishmaniasis in an endemic focus, Southwestern Iran. J Acute Dis 4: 292–297.
-
14.
Siriwardena HV, Udagedara CU, Karunaweera ND, 2003. Clinical features, risk factors and efficacy of cryotherapy in cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Med J 48: 10–12.
-
15.
Agrawal S, Khandelwal K, Bumb RA, Oghumu S, Salotra P, Satoskar AR, 2014. Pediatric cutaneous leishmaniasis in an endemic region in India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 901–904.
-
16.
Saroufim M, Charafeddine K, Issa G, Khalifeh H, Habib RH, Berry A, Ghosn N, Rady A, Khalifeh I, 2014. Ongoing epidemic of cutaneous leishmaniasis among Syrian refugees, Lebanon. Emerg Infect Dis 20: 1712–1715.
-
17.
Al-Salem W, Herricks JR, Hotez PJ, 2016. A review of visceral leishmaniasis during the conflict in South Sudan and the consequences for East African countries. Parasit Vectors 9: 460.
-
18.
Hussain M, Munir S, Jamal MA, Ayaz S, Akhoundi M, Mohamed K, 2017. Epidemic outbreak of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kohat District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Acta Trop 172: 147–155.
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19.
Khudari H, Bozo M, Hoff E, 2015. WHO Response to Malnutrition in Syria: A Focus on Surveillance, Case Detection and Clinical Management. Available at: https://www.ennonline.net/fex/48/whosyria. Accessed February 24, 2019.
-
20.
Miró G, Müller A, Montoya A, Checa R, Marino V, Marino E, Fuster F, Escacena C, Descalzo MA, Gálvez R, 2017. Epidemiological role of dogs since the human leishmaniosis outbreak in Madrid. Parasit Vectors 10: 209.
-
21.
Al-Salem WS, Pigott DM, Subramaniam K, Haines LR, Kelly-Hope L, Molyneux DH, Hay SI, Acosta-Serrano A, 2016. Cutaneous leishmaniasis and conflict in Syria. Emerg Infect Dis 22: 931–933.
-
22.
Alawieh A, Musharrafieh U, Jaber A, Berry A, Ghosn N, Bizri AR, 2014. Revisiting leishmaniasis in the time of war: the Syrian conflict and the Lebanese outbreak. Int J Infect Dis 29: 115–119.
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Visceral and Cutaneous Leishmaniases in a City in Syria and the Effects of the Syrian Conflict
Alexey Youssef
Alexey Youssef
Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syria;
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Rim Harfouch
Rim Harfouch
Microbiology and Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al Andalus University, Tartous, Syria;
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Said El Zein
Said El Zein
Infectious Diseases Division, Department of Internal Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon;
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Zuheir Alshehabi
Zuheir Alshehabi
Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syria;
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Rafea Shaaban
Rafea Shaaban
Biostatistics Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syria
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Souha S. Kanj
Souha S. Kanj
Infectious Diseases Division, Department of Internal Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon;
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War provides ideal grounds for the outbreak of infectious diseases, and the Syrian war is not an exception to this rule. Following the civil crisis, Syria and refugee camps of neighboring countries witnessed an outbreak of leishmaniasis. We accessed the database of the central leishmaniasis registry in Latakia city and obtained the leishmaniasis data of the period 2008–2016. Our data showed that the years 2013 and 2014 recorded a surge in the number of both cutaneous leishmaniases (CL) and visceral leishmaniasis (VL) cases. This surge coincided with the massive internal displacement waves that struck Latakia governorate during that time. Subsequently, after 2015, the number of recorded CL and VL cases gradually decreased. This drop coincided with a reduced influx of internally displaced persons into Latakia governorate. Our report depicts the effects of the Syrian crisis on the epidemiology of leishmaniasis by outlining the experience of Latakia governorate. Similar results may have occurred in other refugee-hosting Syrian governorates.
Author Notes
Authors’ addresses: Alexey Youssef, Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syria, E-mail: alexeyyousef1994@gmail.com. Rim Harfouch, Microbiology and biochemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al Andalus University, Tartous, Syria, E-mail: rimharf@yahoo.com. Said El Zein and Souha S. Kanj, Infectious Diseases Division, Department of Internal Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon, E-mails: selzein20@gmail.com and sk11@aub.edu.lb. Zuheir Alshehabi, Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syria, E-mail: alshehabizuheir08@gmail.com. Rafea Shaaban, Biostatistics Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syria, E-mail: shaabanrafea@yahoo.fr.
These authors contributed equally to this work.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Sharara SL, Kanj SS, 2014. War and infectious diseases: challenges of the Syrian civil war. PLoS Pathog 10: e1004438.
-
2.
Salam N, Al-Shaqha WM, Azzi A, 2014. Leishmaniasis in the middle east: incidence and epidemiology. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8: e3208.
-
3.
Du R, Hotez PJ, Al-Salem WS, Acosta-Serrano A, 2016. Old world cutaneous leishmaniasis and refugee crises in the middle east and north Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: e0004545.
-
4.
Alvar J, Velez ID, Bern C, Herrero M, Desjeux P, Cano J, Jannin J, den Boer M, 2012. Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence. PLoS One 7: e35671.
-
5.
Russel A, 1756. The Natural History of Aleppo and Parts Adjacent. London, United Kingdom: A. Millar.
-
6.
Tayeh A, Jalouk L, Cairncross S, 1997. Twenty years of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Aleppo, Syria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91: 657–659.
-
7.
Abazid N, Jones C, Davies CR, 2012. Knowledge, attitudes and practices about leishmaniasis among cutaneous leishmaniasis patients in Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic. East Mediterr Health J 18: 7–14.
-
8.
Gossage SM, Rogers ME, Bates PA, 2003. Two separate growth phases during the development of Leishmania in sand flies: implications for understanding the life cycle. Int J Parasitol 33: 1027–1034.
-
9.
Haddad N, Saliba H, Altawil A, Villinsky J, Al-Nahhas S, 2015. Cutaneous leishmaniasis in the central provinces of Hama and Edlib in Syria: vector identification and parasite typing. Parasit Vectors 8: 524.
-
10.
Rehman K, Walochnik J, Mischlinger J, Alassil B, Allan R, Ramharter M, 2018. Leishmaniasis in northern Syria during civil war. Emerg Infect Dis 24: 1973–1981.
-
11.
Rioux JA, Dereure J, Khiami A, Pratlong F, Sirdar K, Lambert M, 1990. [Ecoepidemiology of leishmaniasis in Syria. 1. Leishmania major Yakimoff and Schokhor (Kinetoplastida-Trypanosomatidae) infestation of Psammomys obesus cretzschmar (Rodentia-Gerbillidae)]. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 65: 203–207.
-
12.
Abdellatif MZM, El-Mabrouk K, Ewis AA, 2013. An epidemiological study of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Al-jabal Al-gharbi, Libya. Korean J Parasitol 51: 75–84.
-
13.
Feiz-Haddad M-H, Kassiri H, Kasiri N, Panahandeh A, Lotfi M, 2015. Prevalence and epidemiologic profile of acute cutaneous leishmaniasis in an endemic focus, Southwestern Iran. J Acute Dis 4: 292–297.
-
14.
Siriwardena HV, Udagedara CU, Karunaweera ND, 2003. Clinical features, risk factors and efficacy of cryotherapy in cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Med J 48: 10–12.
-
15.
Agrawal S, Khandelwal K, Bumb RA, Oghumu S, Salotra P, Satoskar AR, 2014. Pediatric cutaneous leishmaniasis in an endemic region in India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 901–904.
-
16.
Saroufim M, Charafeddine K, Issa G, Khalifeh H, Habib RH, Berry A, Ghosn N, Rady A, Khalifeh I, 2014. Ongoing epidemic of cutaneous leishmaniasis among Syrian refugees, Lebanon. Emerg Infect Dis 20: 1712–1715.
-
17.
Al-Salem W, Herricks JR, Hotez PJ, 2016. A review of visceral leishmaniasis during the conflict in South Sudan and the consequences for East African countries. Parasit Vectors 9: 460.
-
18.
Hussain M, Munir S, Jamal MA, Ayaz S, Akhoundi M, Mohamed K, 2017. Epidemic outbreak of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kohat District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Acta Trop 172: 147–155.
-
19.
Khudari H, Bozo M, Hoff E, 2015. WHO Response to Malnutrition in Syria: A Focus on Surveillance, Case Detection and Clinical Management. Available at: https://www.ennonline.net/fex/48/whosyria. Accessed February 24, 2019.
-
20.
Miró G, Müller A, Montoya A, Checa R, Marino V, Marino E, Fuster F, Escacena C, Descalzo MA, Gálvez R, 2017. Epidemiological role of dogs since the human leishmaniosis outbreak in Madrid. Parasit Vectors 10: 209.
-
21.
Al-Salem WS, Pigott DM, Subramaniam K, Haines LR, Kelly-Hope L, Molyneux DH, Hay SI, Acosta-Serrano A, 2016. Cutaneous leishmaniasis and conflict in Syria. Emerg Infect Dis 22: 931–933.
-
22.
Alawieh A, Musharrafieh U, Jaber A, Berry A, Ghosn N, Bizri AR, 2014. Revisiting leishmaniasis in the time of war: the Syrian conflict and the Lebanese outbreak. Int J Infect Dis 29: 115–119.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 48 | 48 | 8 |
| Full Text Views | 1458 | 192 | 3 |
| PDF Downloads | 241 | 65 | 1 |