ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Kawata K, 1978. Water and other environmental interventions—the minimum investment concept. Am J Clin Nutr 31: 2114–2123.
-
2.
Wagner EG, Lanoix JN, 1958. Excreta disposal for rural areas and small communities. Monogr Ser World Health Organ 39: 1–182.
-
3.
Curtis V, Cairncross S, Yonli R, 2000. Domestic hygiene and diarrhoea—pinpointing the problem. Trop Med Int Health 5: 22–32.
-
4.
Cutting WAM, 1991. Diarrhoeal diseases. Stanfield P, Brueton M, Chan M, Parkin M, Waterston T, eds. Diseases of Children in the Subtropics and Tropics. London, United Kingdom: Edward Arnold.
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5.
Foster AD, 1993. Household partition in rural Bangladesh. Popul Stud 47: 97–114.
-
6.
Pinfold JV, 1990. Fecal contamination of water and fingertip-rinses as a method for evaluating the effect of low-cost water supply and sanitation activities on faeco-oral disease transmission. II. A hygiene intervention study in rural north-east Thailand. Epidemiol Infect 105: 377–389.
-
7.
Curtis V, Biran A, Deverell K, Hughes C, Bellamy K, Drasar B, 2003. Hygiene in the home: relating bugs and behaviour. Soc Sci Med 57: 657–672.
-
8.
Cairncross S, Blumenthal U, Kolsky P, Moraes L, Tayeh A, 1996. The public and domestic domains in the transmission of disease. Trop Med Int Health 1: 27–34.
-
9.
Andres LA, Briceno B, Chase C, Echenique JA, 2014. Sanitation and Externalities: Evidence from Early Childhood Health in Rural India. Policy Research Working Paper 6737. Washington, DC: World Bank.
-
10.
Root GP, 2001. Sanitation, community environments, and childhood diarrhoea in rural Zimbabwe. J Health Popul Nutr 19: 73–82.
-
11.
Lopez AL, MacAsaet LY, Ylade M, Tayag EA, Ali M, 2015. Epidemiology of cholera in the Philippines. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9: e3440.
-
12.
Penrose K, De Castro MC, Werema J, Ryan ET, 2010. Informal urban settlements and cholera risk in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e631.
-
13.
Barreto ML et al. 2010. Impact of a citywide sanitation program in northeast Brazil on intestinal parasites infection in young children. Environ Health Perspect 118: 1637–1642.
-
14.
Barreto ML et al. 2007. Effect of city-wide sanitation programme on reduction in rate of childhood diarrhoea in northeast Brazil: assessment by two cohort studies. Lancet 370: 1622–1628.
-
15.
VanDerslice J, Briscoe J, 1995. Environmental interventions in developing countries: interactions and their implications. Am J Epidemiol 141: 135–144.
-
16.
Mollah KA, Aramaki T, 2010. Social-epidemiological study for evaluation of water supply and sanitation systems of low-income urban community in Dhaka, Bangladesh. J Water Health 8: 184–191.
-
17.
WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2015. 25 Years Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water—2015 Update and MDG Assessment. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.
-
18.
Goldstick JE, Trostle J, Eisenberg JNS, 2014. Ask when—not just whether—it’s a risk: how regional context influences local causes of diarrheal disease. Am J Epidemiol 179: 1247–1254.
-
19.
Spears D, 2013. How Much International Variation in Child Height Can Sanitation Explain? Policy Research Working Paper 6351. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
-
20.
Fuller JA, Clasen T, Heijnen M, Eisenberg JN, 2014. Shared sanitation and the prevalence of diarrhea in young children: evidence from 51 countries, 2001–2011. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 173–180.
-
21.
Fuller JA, Westphal JA, Kenney B, Eisenberg JNS, 2015. The joint effects of water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease: a multicountry analysis of the demographic and health surveys. Trop Med Int Health 20: 284–292.
-
22.
Huda TM, Unicomb L, Johnston RB, Halder AK, Yushuf Sharker MA, Luby SP, 2012. Interim evaluation of a large scale sanitation, hygiene and water improvement programme on childhood diarrhea and respiratory disease in rural Bangladesh. Soc Sci Med 75: 604–611.
-
23.
Huda TMN, Schmidt WP, Pickering AJ, Mahmud ZH, Islam MS, Rahman MS, Luby SP, Biran A, 2018. A cross sectional study of the association between sanitation type and fecal contamination of the household environment in rural Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 98: 967–976.
-
24.
GARMIN, eTrex Legend® H, 2017. Available at: https://buy.garmin.com/en-GB/GB/outdoor/discontinued/etrex-legend-h/prod30120.html. Accessed June 29, 2017.
-
25.
Larson EL, Strom MS, Evans CA, 1980. Analysis of three variables in sampling solutions used to assay bacteria of hands: type of solution, use of antiseptic neutralizers, and solution temperature. J Clin Microbiol 12: 355–360.
-
26.
Vujcic J, Ram PK, Hussain F, Unicomb L, Gope PS, Abedin J, Mahmud ZH, Islam MS, Luby SP, 2014. Toys and toilets: cross-sectional study using children’s toys to evaluate environmental fecal contamination in rural Bangladeshi households with different sanitation facilities and practices. Trop Med Int Health 19: 528–536.
-
27.
CDC, 2010. Microbiological Indicator Testing in Developing Countries: A Fact Sheet for the Field Practitioner. Available at: http://sanitationupdates.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/microbiology2020.pdf. Accessed September 12, 2013.
-
28.
USEPA, 2002. Method 1604: Total Coliforms and Escherichia coli in Water by Membrane Filtration Using a Simultaneous Detection Technique (MI Medium). Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency.
-
29.
WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2014. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water—2014 Update. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.
-
30.
Luby SP, Halder AK, Huda T, Unicomb L, Johnston RB, 2011. The effect of handwashing at recommended times with water alone and with soap on child diarrhea in rural Bangladesh: an observational study. PLoS Med 8: e1001052.
-
31.
Vyas S, Kumaranayake L, 2006. Constructing socio-economic status indices: how to use principal components analysis. Health Policy Plan 21: 459–468.
-
32.
Barros AJ, Victora CG, 2005. A nationwide wealth score based on the 2000 Brazilian demographic census. Rev Saude Publica 39: 523–529.
-
33.
Houweling TA, Kunst AE, Mackenbach JP, 2003. Measuring health inequality among children in developing countries: does the choice of the indicator of economic status matter? Int J Equity Health 2: 8.
-
34.
WHO/UNICEF, 2006. Core Questions on Drinking-Water and Sanitation for Household Surveys. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/oms_brochure_core_questionsfinal24608.pdf. Accessed September 12, 2013.
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35.
UCLA: Statistical Consultating Group, 2014. Analyzing Correlated (Clustered) Data. Available at: http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/stata/library/cpsu.htm. Accessed August 25, 2014.
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36.
UCLA: Statistical Consultating Group, 2014. What is the Relationship between xtreg-re, xtreg-fe and xtreg-be? Available at: http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/stata/faq/revsfe.htm. Accessed August 25, 2014.
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37.
UCLA: Statistical Consulting Group, 2010. What are the Some of the Methods for Analyzing Clustered Data in Stata? Available at: http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/STATA/faq/clusterreg.htm. Accessed October 23, 2010.
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38.
Greene WH, 1997. Econometric Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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39.
Kirkwood BR, Sterne JAC, 2003. Essential Medical Statistics. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Science, Ltd.
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40.
Greenland S, Pearl J, Robins JM, 1999. Causal diagrams for epidemiologic research. Epidemiology 10: 37–48.
-
41.
DiVita MA, Halder AK, Jahid IK, Islam M, Sobsey MD, Luby SP, Ram PK, 2008. The Utility of Common Household Objects as Markers of Home Hygiene in the Context of Access to Improved Sanitation. ISEE 20th Annual Conference, Pasadena, CA, October 12–16, 2008.
-
42.
Pickering AJ et al. 2010. Hands, water, and health: fecal contamination in Tanzanian communities with improved, non-networked water supplies. Environ Sci Technol 44: 3267–3272.
-
43.
Aziz KM, Hoque BA, Hasan KZ, Patwary MY, Huttly SR, Rahaman MM, Feachem RG, 1990. Reduction in diarrhoeal diseases in children in rural Bangladesh by environmental and behavioural modifications. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84: 433–438.
-
44.
Ercumen A et al. 2017. Animal feces contribute to domestic fecal contamination: evidence from E. coli measured in water, hands, food, flies, and soil in Bangladesh. Environ Sci Technol 51: 8725–8734.
-
45.
Torondel B, Gyekye-Aboagye Y, Routray P, Boisson S, Schimdt W, Clasen T, 2015. Laboratory development and field testing of sentinel toys to assess environmental fecal exposure of young children in rural India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 109: 386–392.
-
46.
Penakalapati G, Swarthout J, Delahoy MJ, McAliley L, Wodnik B, Levy K, Freeman MC, 2017. Exposure to animal feces and human health: a systematic review and proposed research priorities. Environ Sci Technol 51: 11537–11552.
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47.
Tyagi VK, Chopra AK, Kazmi AA, Kumar A, 2006. Alternative microbial indicatrosd or fecal pollution: current perspective. Iran J Environ Health Sci Eng 3: 205–216.
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48.
Rajal VB, Cruz C, Last JA, 2010. Water quality issues and infant diarrhoea in a South American province. Glob Public Health 5: 348–363.
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Scott TM, Rose JB, Jenkins TM, Farrah SR, Lukasik J, 2002. Microbial source tracking: current methodology and future directions. Appl Environ Microbiol 68: 5796–5803.
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50.
USEPA, 2006. Voluntary Estuary Monitoring Manual Chapter 17: Bacteria Indicators of Potential Pathogens. Available at: http://water.epa.gov/type/oceb/nep/upload/2009_03_13_estuaries_monitor_chap17.pdf. Accessed August 13, 2013.
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Hazen TC, 1988. Fecal coliforms as indicators in tropical waters: a review. Environ Toxicol 3: 461–477.
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53.
Desmarais TR, Solo-Gabriele HM, Palmer CJ, 2002. Influence of soil on fecal indicator organisms in a tidally influenced subtropical environment. Appl Environ Microbiol 68: 1165–1172.
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54.
Sobsey MD, Schwab KJ, Handzel TR, 1990. Simple membrane filter method to concentrate and enumerate male-specific RNA coliphages. J Am Water Works Assoc 82: 52–59.
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55.
Hutcheon JA, Chiolero A, Hanley JA, 2010. Random measurement error and regression dilution bias. BMJ 340: c2289.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 512 | 436 | 34 |
| Full Text Views | 598 | 13 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 190 | 11 | 0 |
Effect of Neighborhood Sanitation Coverage on Fecal Contamination of the Household Environment in Rural Bangladesh
Tarique Md. Nurul Huda
Tarique Md. Nurul Huda
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom;
icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh;
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icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh;
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Wolf-Peter Schmidt
Wolf-Peter Schmidt
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom;
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Amy J. Pickering
Amy J. Pickering
Stanford University, Stanford, California
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Leanne Unicomb
Leanne Unicomb
icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh;
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Zahid Hayat Mahmud
Zahid Hayat Mahmud
icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh;
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Stephen P. Luby
Stephen P. Luby
Stanford University, Stanford, California
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Adam Biran
Adam Biran
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom;
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Enteric pathogens can be transmitted within the household and the surrounding neighborhood. The objective of this study was to understand the effect of neighborhood-level sanitation coverage on contamination of the household environment with levels of fecal indicator bacteria in rural Bangladesh. We conducted spot-check observations of sanitation facilities in neighboring households (NHs) within a 20-m radius of target households with children aged 6–24 months. Sanitation facilities were defined as improved (a private pit latrine with a slab or better) or unimproved. Fecal coliforms (FCs) on children’s hands and sentinel toy balls were measured and used as indicators of household-level fecal contamination. We visited 1,784 NHs surrounding 428 target households. On average, sentinel toy balls had 2.11(standard deviation [SD] = 1.37) log10 colony-forming units (CFUs) of FCs/toy ball and children’s hands had 2.23 (SD = 1.15) log10 CFU of FCs/two hands. Access to 100% private improved sanitation coverage in the neighborhood was associated with a small and statistically insignificant difference in contamination of sentinel toy balls (difference in means = −0.13 log10 CFU/toy ball; 95% confidence intervals [CI]: −0.64, 0.39; P = 0.63) and children’s hands (difference in means = −0.11 log10 CFU/two hands; 95% CI: −0.53, 0.32; P = 0.62). Improved sanitation coverage in the neighborhood had limited measurable effect on FCs in the target household environment. Other factors such as access to improved sanitation in the household, absence of cow dung, presence of appropriate water drainage, and optimal handwashing practice may be more important in reducing FCs in the household environment.
Author Notes
Authors’ addresses: Tarique Md. Nurul Huda and Leanne Unicomb, icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh, E-mails: tariquehuda@yahoo.com or tarique.huda@icddrb.org and leanne@icddrb.org. Wolf-Peter Schmidt and Adam Biran, Environmental Health Group Department for Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom, E-mails: wolf-peter.schmidt@lshtm.ac.uk and adam.biran@lshtm.ac.uk. Amy J. Pickering and Stephen P. Luby, Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, E-mails: amyjanel@gmail.com and sluby@stanford.edu. Zahid Hayat Mahmud, Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Laboratory Sciences and Services Division, International Center for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh, E-mail: zhmahmud@icddrb.org.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Kawata K, 1978. Water and other environmental interventions—the minimum investment concept. Am J Clin Nutr 31: 2114–2123.
-
2.
Wagner EG, Lanoix JN, 1958. Excreta disposal for rural areas and small communities. Monogr Ser World Health Organ 39: 1–182.
-
3.
Curtis V, Cairncross S, Yonli R, 2000. Domestic hygiene and diarrhoea—pinpointing the problem. Trop Med Int Health 5: 22–32.
-
4.
Cutting WAM, 1991. Diarrhoeal diseases. Stanfield P, Brueton M, Chan M, Parkin M, Waterston T, eds. Diseases of Children in the Subtropics and Tropics. London, United Kingdom: Edward Arnold.
-
5.
Foster AD, 1993. Household partition in rural Bangladesh. Popul Stud 47: 97–114.
-
6.
Pinfold JV, 1990. Fecal contamination of water and fingertip-rinses as a method for evaluating the effect of low-cost water supply and sanitation activities on faeco-oral disease transmission. II. A hygiene intervention study in rural north-east Thailand. Epidemiol Infect 105: 377–389.
-
7.
Curtis V, Biran A, Deverell K, Hughes C, Bellamy K, Drasar B, 2003. Hygiene in the home: relating bugs and behaviour. Soc Sci Med 57: 657–672.
-
8.
Cairncross S, Blumenthal U, Kolsky P, Moraes L, Tayeh A, 1996. The public and domestic domains in the transmission of disease. Trop Med Int Health 1: 27–34.
-
9.
Andres LA, Briceno B, Chase C, Echenique JA, 2014. Sanitation and Externalities: Evidence from Early Childhood Health in Rural India. Policy Research Working Paper 6737. Washington, DC: World Bank.
-
10.
Root GP, 2001. Sanitation, community environments, and childhood diarrhoea in rural Zimbabwe. J Health Popul Nutr 19: 73–82.
-
11.
Lopez AL, MacAsaet LY, Ylade M, Tayag EA, Ali M, 2015. Epidemiology of cholera in the Philippines. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9: e3440.
-
12.
Penrose K, De Castro MC, Werema J, Ryan ET, 2010. Informal urban settlements and cholera risk in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e631.
-
13.
Barreto ML et al. 2010. Impact of a citywide sanitation program in northeast Brazil on intestinal parasites infection in young children. Environ Health Perspect 118: 1637–1642.
-
14.
Barreto ML et al. 2007. Effect of city-wide sanitation programme on reduction in rate of childhood diarrhoea in northeast Brazil: assessment by two cohort studies. Lancet 370: 1622–1628.
-
15.
VanDerslice J, Briscoe J, 1995. Environmental interventions in developing countries: interactions and their implications. Am J Epidemiol 141: 135–144.
-
16.
Mollah KA, Aramaki T, 2010. Social-epidemiological study for evaluation of water supply and sanitation systems of low-income urban community in Dhaka, Bangladesh. J Water Health 8: 184–191.
-
17.
WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2015. 25 Years Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water—2015 Update and MDG Assessment. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.
-
18.
Goldstick JE, Trostle J, Eisenberg JNS, 2014. Ask when—not just whether—it’s a risk: how regional context influences local causes of diarrheal disease. Am J Epidemiol 179: 1247–1254.
-
19.
Spears D, 2013. How Much International Variation in Child Height Can Sanitation Explain? Policy Research Working Paper 6351. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
-
20.
Fuller JA, Clasen T, Heijnen M, Eisenberg JN, 2014. Shared sanitation and the prevalence of diarrhea in young children: evidence from 51 countries, 2001–2011. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 173–180.
-
21.
Fuller JA, Westphal JA, Kenney B, Eisenberg JNS, 2015. The joint effects of water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease: a multicountry analysis of the demographic and health surveys. Trop Med Int Health 20: 284–292.
-
22.
Huda TM, Unicomb L, Johnston RB, Halder AK, Yushuf Sharker MA, Luby SP, 2012. Interim evaluation of a large scale sanitation, hygiene and water improvement programme on childhood diarrhea and respiratory disease in rural Bangladesh. Soc Sci Med 75: 604–611.
-
23.
Huda TMN, Schmidt WP, Pickering AJ, Mahmud ZH, Islam MS, Rahman MS, Luby SP, Biran A, 2018. A cross sectional study of the association between sanitation type and fecal contamination of the household environment in rural Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 98: 967–976.
-
24.
GARMIN, eTrex Legend® H, 2017. Available at: https://buy.garmin.com/en-GB/GB/outdoor/discontinued/etrex-legend-h/prod30120.html. Accessed June 29, 2017.
-
25.
Larson EL, Strom MS, Evans CA, 1980. Analysis of three variables in sampling solutions used to assay bacteria of hands: type of solution, use of antiseptic neutralizers, and solution temperature. J Clin Microbiol 12: 355–360.
-
26.
Vujcic J, Ram PK, Hussain F, Unicomb L, Gope PS, Abedin J, Mahmud ZH, Islam MS, Luby SP, 2014. Toys and toilets: cross-sectional study using children’s toys to evaluate environmental fecal contamination in rural Bangladeshi households with different sanitation facilities and practices. Trop Med Int Health 19: 528–536.
-
27.
CDC, 2010. Microbiological Indicator Testing in Developing Countries: A Fact Sheet for the Field Practitioner. Available at: http://sanitationupdates.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/microbiology2020.pdf. Accessed September 12, 2013.
-
28.
USEPA, 2002. Method 1604: Total Coliforms and Escherichia coli in Water by Membrane Filtration Using a Simultaneous Detection Technique (MI Medium). Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency.
-
29.
WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2014. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water—2014 Update. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.
-
30.
Luby SP, Halder AK, Huda T, Unicomb L, Johnston RB, 2011. The effect of handwashing at recommended times with water alone and with soap on child diarrhea in rural Bangladesh: an observational study. PLoS Med 8: e1001052.
-
31.
Vyas S, Kumaranayake L, 2006. Constructing socio-economic status indices: how to use principal components analysis. Health Policy Plan 21: 459–468.
-
32.
Barros AJ, Victora CG, 2005. A nationwide wealth score based on the 2000 Brazilian demographic census. Rev Saude Publica 39: 523–529.
-
33.
Houweling TA, Kunst AE, Mackenbach JP, 2003. Measuring health inequality among children in developing countries: does the choice of the indicator of economic status matter? Int J Equity Health 2: 8.
-
34.
WHO/UNICEF, 2006. Core Questions on Drinking-Water and Sanitation for Household Surveys. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/oms_brochure_core_questionsfinal24608.pdf. Accessed September 12, 2013.
-
35.
UCLA: Statistical Consultating Group, 2014. Analyzing Correlated (Clustered) Data. Available at: http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/stata/library/cpsu.htm. Accessed August 25, 2014.
-
36.
UCLA: Statistical Consultating Group, 2014. What is the Relationship between xtreg-re, xtreg-fe and xtreg-be? Available at: http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/stata/faq/revsfe.htm. Accessed August 25, 2014.
-
37.
UCLA: Statistical Consulting Group, 2010. What are the Some of the Methods for Analyzing Clustered Data in Stata? Available at: http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/STATA/faq/clusterreg.htm. Accessed October 23, 2010.
-
38.
Greene WH, 1997. Econometric Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
-
39.
Kirkwood BR, Sterne JAC, 2003. Essential Medical Statistics. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Science, Ltd.
-
40.
Greenland S, Pearl J, Robins JM, 1999. Causal diagrams for epidemiologic research. Epidemiology 10: 37–48.
-
41.
DiVita MA, Halder AK, Jahid IK, Islam M, Sobsey MD, Luby SP, Ram PK, 2008. The Utility of Common Household Objects as Markers of Home Hygiene in the Context of Access to Improved Sanitation. ISEE 20th Annual Conference, Pasadena, CA, October 12–16, 2008.
-
42.
Pickering AJ et al. 2010. Hands, water, and health: fecal contamination in Tanzanian communities with improved, non-networked water supplies. Environ Sci Technol 44: 3267–3272.
-
43.
Aziz KM, Hoque BA, Hasan KZ, Patwary MY, Huttly SR, Rahaman MM, Feachem RG, 1990. Reduction in diarrhoeal diseases in children in rural Bangladesh by environmental and behavioural modifications. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84: 433–438.
-
44.
Ercumen A et al. 2017. Animal feces contribute to domestic fecal contamination: evidence from E. coli measured in water, hands, food, flies, and soil in Bangladesh. Environ Sci Technol 51: 8725–8734.
-
45.
Torondel B, Gyekye-Aboagye Y, Routray P, Boisson S, Schimdt W, Clasen T, 2015. Laboratory development and field testing of sentinel toys to assess environmental fecal exposure of young children in rural India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 109: 386–392.
-
46.
Penakalapati G, Swarthout J, Delahoy MJ, McAliley L, Wodnik B, Levy K, Freeman MC, 2017. Exposure to animal feces and human health: a systematic review and proposed research priorities. Environ Sci Technol 51: 11537–11552.
-
47.
Tyagi VK, Chopra AK, Kazmi AA, Kumar A, 2006. Alternative microbial indicatrosd or fecal pollution: current perspective. Iran J Environ Health Sci Eng 3: 205–216.
-
48.
Rajal VB, Cruz C, Last JA, 2010. Water quality issues and infant diarrhoea in a South American province. Glob Public Health 5: 348–363.
-
49.
Scott TM, Rose JB, Jenkins TM, Farrah SR, Lukasik J, 2002. Microbial source tracking: current methodology and future directions. Appl Environ Microbiol 68: 5796–5803.
-
50.
USEPA, 2006. Voluntary Estuary Monitoring Manual Chapter 17: Bacteria Indicators of Potential Pathogens. Available at: http://water.epa.gov/type/oceb/nep/upload/2009_03_13_estuaries_monitor_chap17.pdf. Accessed August 13, 2013.
-
51.
Bermudez M, Hazen TC, 1988. Phenotypic and genotypic comparison of Escherichia coli from pristine tropical waters. Appl Environ Microbiol 54: 979–983.
-
52.
Hazen TC, 1988. Fecal coliforms as indicators in tropical waters: a review. Environ Toxicol 3: 461–477.
-
53.
Desmarais TR, Solo-Gabriele HM, Palmer CJ, 2002. Influence of soil on fecal indicator organisms in a tidally influenced subtropical environment. Appl Environ Microbiol 68: 1165–1172.
-
54.
Sobsey MD, Schwab KJ, Handzel TR, 1990. Simple membrane filter method to concentrate and enumerate male-specific RNA coliphages. J Am Water Works Assoc 82: 52–59.
-
55.
Hutcheon JA, Chiolero A, Hanley JA, 2010. Random measurement error and regression dilution bias. BMJ 340: c2289.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 512 | 436 | 34 |
| Full Text Views | 598 | 13 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 190 | 11 | 0 |