Author:
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
WHO, 2015. World Malaria Report. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world-malaria-report-2015/report/en/. Accessed November 13, 2018.
-
2.
WHO, 2016. World Malaria Report. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world-malaria-report-2016/report/en/. Accessed November 13, 2018.
-
3.
Searle KM, Hamapumbu H, Lubinda J, Shields TM, Pinchoff J, Kobayashi T, Stevenson JC, Bridges DJ, Larsen DA, Thuma PE, Moss WJ; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2016. Evaluation of the operational challenges in implementing reactive screen-and-treat and implications of reactive case detection strategies for malaria elimination in a region of low transmission in southern Zambia. Malar J 15: 412.
-
4.
Lindblade KA, Steinhardt L, Samuels A, Kachur SP, Slutsker L, 2013. The silent threat: asymptomatic parasitemia and malaria transmission. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 11: 623–639.
-
5.
Bousema JT, Gouagna LC, Drakeley CJ, Meutstege AM, Okech BA, Akim IN, Beier JC, Githure JI, Sauerwein RW, 2004. Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte carriage in asymptomatic children in western Kenya. Malar J 3: 18.
-
6.
Lin JT, Saunders DL, Meshnick SR, 2014. The role of submicroscopic parasitemia in malaria transmission: what is the evidence? Trends Parasitol 30: 183–190.
-
7.
Bousema T, Okell L, Felger I, Drakeley C, 2014. Asymptomatic malaria infections: detectability, transmissibility and public health relevance. Nat Rev Microbiol 12: 833–840.
-
8.
de Mast Q, Brouwers J, Syafruddin D, Bousema T, Baidjoe AY, de Groot PG, van der Ven AJ, Fijnheer R, 2015. Is asymptomatic malaria really asymptomatic? Hematological, vascular and inflammatory effects of asymptomatic malaria parasitemia. J Infect 71: 587–596.
-
9.
Okell LC, Bousema T, Griffin JT, Ouedraogo AL, Ghani AC, Drakeley CJ, 2012. Factors determining the occurrence of submicroscopic malaria infections and their relevance for control. Nat Commun 3: 1237.
-
10.
Okell LC, Ghani AC, Lyons E, Drakeley CJ, 2009. Submicroscopic infection in Plasmodium falciparum-endemic populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect Dis 200: 1509–1517.
-
11.
Mharakurwa S, Thuma PE, Norris DE, Mulenga M, Chalwe V, Chipeta J, Munyati S, Mutambu S, Mason PR; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2012. Malaria epidemiology and control in southern Africa. Acta Trop 121: 202–206.
-
12.
Laban NM, Kobayashi T, Hamapumbu H, Sullivan D, Mharakurwa S, Thuma PE, Shiff CJ, Moss WJ; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2015. Comparison of a PfHRP2-based rapid diagnostic test and PCR for malaria in a low prevalence setting in rural southern Zambia: implications for elimination. Malar J 14: 25.
-
13.
PMI, 2018. FY 2018 Zambia Malaria Operational Plan. Available at: https://www.pmi.gov/where-we-work/zambia. Accessed November 13, 2018.
-
14.
Kent RJ, Mharakurwa S, Norris DE, 2007. Spatial and temporal genetic structure of Anopheles arabiensis in southern Zambia over consecutive wet and drought years. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 316–323.
-
15.
WHO, 2017. Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Test Performance—Results of WHO Product Testing of Malaria RDTs: Round 7 (2015–2016). Available at: https://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/978924151268/en/. Accessed November 13, 2018.
-
16.
Kain KC, Lanar DE, 1991. Determination of genetic variation within Plasmodium falciparum by using enzymatically amplified DNA from filter paper disks impregnated with whole blood. J Clin Microbiol 29: 1171–1174.
-
17.
Steenkeste N et al. 2009. Towards high-throughput molecular detection of Plasmodium: new approaches and molecular markers. Malar J 8: 86.
-
18.
Mlambo G, Vasquez Y, LeBlanc R, Sullivan D, Kumar N, 2008. A filter paper method for the detection of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78: 114–116.
-
19.
Mayxay M, Pukrittayakamee S, Chotivanich K, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, 2001. Persistence of Plasmodium falciparum HRP-2 in successfully treated acute falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95: 179–182.
-
20.
Marquart L, Butterworth A, McCarthy JS, Gatton ML, 2012. Modelling the dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 in human malaria to better understand malaria rapid diagnostic test performance. Malar J 11: 74.
-
21.
CIA, 2017. The World Factbook—Zambia. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/za.html. Accessed August 8, 2018.
-
22.
Gatton ML, Cheng Q, 2010. Interrupting malaria transmission: quantifying the impact of interventions in regions of low to moderate transmission. PLoS One 5: e15149.
-
23.
Stresman GH, Stevenson JC, Ngwu N, Marube E, Owaga C, Drakeley C, Bousema T, Cox J, 2014. High levels of asymptomatic and subpatent Plasmodium falciparum parasite carriage at health facilities in an area of heterogeneous malaria transmission intensity in the Kenyan highlands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 1101–1108.
-
24.
Stevenson JC, Stresman GH, Baidjoe A, Okoth A, Oriango R, Owaga C, Marube E, Bousema T, Cox J, Drakeley C, 2015. Use of different transmission metrics to describe malaria epidemiology in the highlands of western Kenya. Malar J 14: 418.
-
25.
Wu L, van den Hoogen LL, Slater H, Walker PG, Ghani AC, Drakeley CJ, Okell LC, 2015. Comparison of diagnostics for the detection of asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum infections to inform control and elimination strategies. Nature 2015 Dec 3 (7580): S86–S93. DOI: 10.1038/nature16039.
-
26.
Ouedraogo AL et al. 2016. Dynamics of the human infectious reservoir for malaria determined by mosquito feeding assays and ultrasensitive malaria diagnosis in Burkina Faso. J Infect Dis 213: 90–99.
-
27.
Nankabirwa J, Brooker SJ, Clarke SE, Fernando D, Gitonga CW, Schellenberg D, Greenwood B, 2014. Malaria in school‐age children in Africa: an increasingly important challenge. Trop Med Int Health 19: 1294–1309.
-
28.
Walldorf JA et al. 2015. School-age children are a reservoir of malaria infection in Malawi. PLoS One 10: e0134061.
-
29.
Noor AM, Kirui VC, Brooker SJ, Snow RW, 2009. The use of insecticide treated nets by age: implications for universal coverage in Africa. BMC Public Health 9: 369.
-
30.
Pinchoff J, Hamapumbu H, Kobayashi T, Simubali L, Stevenson JC, Norris DE, Colantuoni E, Thuma PE, Moss WJ; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2015. Factors associated with sustained use of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets following a reduction in malaria transmission in southern Zambia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 93: 954–960.
-
31.
Kanyangarara M, Hamapumbu H, Mamini E, Lupiya J, Stevenson JC, Mharakurwa S, Chaponda M, Thuma PE, Gwanzura L, Munyati S, Mulenga M, Norris DE, Moss WJ; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2018. Malaria knowledge and bed net use in three transmission settings in southern Africa. Malar J 17: 41.
-
32.
Proietti C, Pettinato DD, Kanoi BN, Ntege E, Crisanti A, Riley EM, Egwang TG, Drakeley C, Bousema T, 2011. Continuing intense malaria transmission in northern Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 830–837.
-
33.
Koita OA et al. 2012. False-negative rapid diagnostic tests for malaria and deletion of the histidine-rich repeat region of the hrp2 gene. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 194–198.
-
34.
Wurtz N et al. 2013. Pfhrp2 and pfhrp3 polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Dakar, Senegal: impact on rapid malaria diagnostic tests. Malar J 12: 34.
-
35.
Parr JB et al. 2017. Pfhrp2-deleted Plasmodium falciparum parasites in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: a national cross-sectional survey. J Infect Dis 216: 36–44.
-
36.
Menegon M, L’Episcopia M, Nurahmed AM, Talha AA, Nour BYM, Severini C, 2017. Identification of Plasmodium falciparum isolates lacking histidine-rich protein 2 and 3 in Eritrea. Infect Genet Evol 55: 131–134.
-
37.
Berhane A et al. 2018. Major threat to malaria control programs by Plasmodium falciparum lacking histidine-rich protein 2, Eritrea. Emerg Infect Dis 24: 462–470.
-
38.
Kozycki CT, Umulisa N, Rulisa S, Mwikarago EI, Musabyimana JP, Habimana JP, Karema C, Krogstad DJ, 2017. False-negative malaria rapid diagnostic tests in Rwanda: impact of Plasmodium falciparum isolates lacking hrp2 and declining malaria transmission. Malar J 16: 123.
-
39.
Wampfler R, Mwingira F, Javati S, Robinson L, Betuela I, Siba P, Beck HP, Mueller I, Felger I, 2013. Strategies for detection of Plasmodium species gametocytes. PLoS One 8: e76316.
-
40.
Bousema T, Drakeley C, 2011. Epidemiology and infectivity of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax gametocytes in relation to malaria control and elimination. Clin Microbiol Rev 24: 377–410.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 70 | 70 | 19 |
| Full Text Views | 904 | 212 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 273 | 50 | 0 |
Characteristics of Subpatent Malaria in a Pre-Elimination Setting in Southern Zambia
Tamaki Kobayashi
Tamaki Kobayashi
Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland;
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Mufaro Kanyangarara
Mufaro Kanyangarara
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland;
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Natasha M. Laban
Natasha M. Laban
Macha Research Trust, Choma, Zambia;
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Masiliso Phiri
Masiliso Phiri
Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Nchelenge, Zambia;
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Harry Hamapumbu
Harry Hamapumbu
Macha Research Trust, Choma, Zambia;
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Kelly M. Searle
Kelly M. Searle
Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland;
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Jennifer C. Stevenson
Jennifer C. Stevenson
Macha Research Trust, Choma, Zambia;
W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Philip E. Thuma
Philip E. Thuma
Macha Research Trust, Choma, Zambia;
W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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William J. Moss
William J. Moss
Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland;
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland;
W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland;
W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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for the Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research
for the Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research
Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland;
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland;
Macha Research Trust, Choma, Zambia;
Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Nchelenge, Zambia;
W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland;
Macha Research Trust, Choma, Zambia;
Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Nchelenge, Zambia;
W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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To achieve and sustain malaria elimination, identification and treatment of the asymptomatic infectious reservoir is critical. Malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are frequently used to identify asymptomatic, Plasmodium-infected individuals through test-and-treat strategies, but their sensitivity is low when used in low transmission settings. Characteristics of individuals with subpatent (RDT-negative but polymerase chain reaction [PCR]–positive) Plasmodium parasitemia were evaluated in southern Zambia where malaria transmission has declined and efforts to achieve malaria elimination are underway. Simple random sampling based on satellite imagery was used to select households for participation in community-based, cross-sectional surveys between 2008 and 2013. Questionnaires were administered to collect information on age, gender, recent history of malaria symptoms, and recent antimalarial drug use. Blood samples were collected by finger prick for Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 RDT, blood smears for microscopy, and dried blood spots for molecular analysis to detect malaria parasites and their sexual stage. Of 3,863 participants with complete data, 102 (2.6%) were positive by microscopy, RDT, or PCR. Of these, 48 (47%) had subpatent parasitemia. Most individuals with subpatent parasitemia were asymptomatic (85%). Compared with individuals without parasitemia, individuals with subpatent parasitemia were significantly more likely to be aged 5–25 years. Approximately one quarter (27%) of those with subpatent parasitemia had detectable gametocytemia. These findings suggest that strategies based on active or reactive case detection can identify asymptomatic individuals positive by RDT, but more sensitive diagnostic tests or focal drug administration may be necessary to target individuals with subpatent parasitemia to achieve malaria elimination.
- Supplemental Materials (PDF 145 KB)
Author Notes
Conflicts of interest: P. T. reports grants from NIH/NIAID during the conduct of the study.
Authors’ addresses: Tamaki Kobayashi, Kelly M. Searle, and William J. Moss, Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, E-mails: tkobaya2@jhu.edu, ksearle1@jhu.edu, and wmoss1@jhu.edu. Mufaro Kanyangarara, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, E-mail: mkanyan1@jhu.edu. Natasha M. Laban, Harry Hamapumbu, Jennifer C. Stevenson, and Philip E. Thuma, Macha Research Trust, Choma, Zambia, E-mails: natasha.laban1@gmail.com, harry.hamapumbu@macharesearch.org, jennyc.stevenson@macharesearch.org, and phil.thuma@macharesearch.org. Masiliso Phiri, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Nchelenge, Zambia, E-mail: masilisophiri@gmail.com.
The Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research includes: Biomedical Research and Training Institute, Zimbabwe; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Baltimore, MD; Macha Research Trust, Zambia; National Institute of Health Research, Zimbabwe; Tropical Diseases Research Centre, Zambia; University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa; and the University of Zambia, Zambia.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
WHO, 2015. World Malaria Report. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world-malaria-report-2015/report/en/. Accessed November 13, 2018.
-
2.
WHO, 2016. World Malaria Report. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world-malaria-report-2016/report/en/. Accessed November 13, 2018.
-
3.
Searle KM, Hamapumbu H, Lubinda J, Shields TM, Pinchoff J, Kobayashi T, Stevenson JC, Bridges DJ, Larsen DA, Thuma PE, Moss WJ; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2016. Evaluation of the operational challenges in implementing reactive screen-and-treat and implications of reactive case detection strategies for malaria elimination in a region of low transmission in southern Zambia. Malar J 15: 412.
-
4.
Lindblade KA, Steinhardt L, Samuels A, Kachur SP, Slutsker L, 2013. The silent threat: asymptomatic parasitemia and malaria transmission. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 11: 623–639.
-
5.
Bousema JT, Gouagna LC, Drakeley CJ, Meutstege AM, Okech BA, Akim IN, Beier JC, Githure JI, Sauerwein RW, 2004. Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte carriage in asymptomatic children in western Kenya. Malar J 3: 18.
-
6.
Lin JT, Saunders DL, Meshnick SR, 2014. The role of submicroscopic parasitemia in malaria transmission: what is the evidence? Trends Parasitol 30: 183–190.
-
7.
Bousema T, Okell L, Felger I, Drakeley C, 2014. Asymptomatic malaria infections: detectability, transmissibility and public health relevance. Nat Rev Microbiol 12: 833–840.
-
8.
de Mast Q, Brouwers J, Syafruddin D, Bousema T, Baidjoe AY, de Groot PG, van der Ven AJ, Fijnheer R, 2015. Is asymptomatic malaria really asymptomatic? Hematological, vascular and inflammatory effects of asymptomatic malaria parasitemia. J Infect 71: 587–596.
-
9.
Okell LC, Bousema T, Griffin JT, Ouedraogo AL, Ghani AC, Drakeley CJ, 2012. Factors determining the occurrence of submicroscopic malaria infections and their relevance for control. Nat Commun 3: 1237.
-
10.
Okell LC, Ghani AC, Lyons E, Drakeley CJ, 2009. Submicroscopic infection in Plasmodium falciparum-endemic populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect Dis 200: 1509–1517.
-
11.
Mharakurwa S, Thuma PE, Norris DE, Mulenga M, Chalwe V, Chipeta J, Munyati S, Mutambu S, Mason PR; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2012. Malaria epidemiology and control in southern Africa. Acta Trop 121: 202–206.
-
12.
Laban NM, Kobayashi T, Hamapumbu H, Sullivan D, Mharakurwa S, Thuma PE, Shiff CJ, Moss WJ; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2015. Comparison of a PfHRP2-based rapid diagnostic test and PCR for malaria in a low prevalence setting in rural southern Zambia: implications for elimination. Malar J 14: 25.
-
13.
PMI, 2018. FY 2018 Zambia Malaria Operational Plan. Available at: https://www.pmi.gov/where-we-work/zambia. Accessed November 13, 2018.
-
14.
Kent RJ, Mharakurwa S, Norris DE, 2007. Spatial and temporal genetic structure of Anopheles arabiensis in southern Zambia over consecutive wet and drought years. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 316–323.
-
15.
WHO, 2017. Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Test Performance—Results of WHO Product Testing of Malaria RDTs: Round 7 (2015–2016). Available at: https://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/978924151268/en/. Accessed November 13, 2018.
-
16.
Kain KC, Lanar DE, 1991. Determination of genetic variation within Plasmodium falciparum by using enzymatically amplified DNA from filter paper disks impregnated with whole blood. J Clin Microbiol 29: 1171–1174.
-
17.
Steenkeste N et al. 2009. Towards high-throughput molecular detection of Plasmodium: new approaches and molecular markers. Malar J 8: 86.
-
18.
Mlambo G, Vasquez Y, LeBlanc R, Sullivan D, Kumar N, 2008. A filter paper method for the detection of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78: 114–116.
-
19.
Mayxay M, Pukrittayakamee S, Chotivanich K, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, 2001. Persistence of Plasmodium falciparum HRP-2 in successfully treated acute falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95: 179–182.
-
20.
Marquart L, Butterworth A, McCarthy JS, Gatton ML, 2012. Modelling the dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 in human malaria to better understand malaria rapid diagnostic test performance. Malar J 11: 74.
-
21.
CIA, 2017. The World Factbook—Zambia. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/za.html. Accessed August 8, 2018.
-
22.
Gatton ML, Cheng Q, 2010. Interrupting malaria transmission: quantifying the impact of interventions in regions of low to moderate transmission. PLoS One 5: e15149.
-
23.
Stresman GH, Stevenson JC, Ngwu N, Marube E, Owaga C, Drakeley C, Bousema T, Cox J, 2014. High levels of asymptomatic and subpatent Plasmodium falciparum parasite carriage at health facilities in an area of heterogeneous malaria transmission intensity in the Kenyan highlands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 1101–1108.
-
24.
Stevenson JC, Stresman GH, Baidjoe A, Okoth A, Oriango R, Owaga C, Marube E, Bousema T, Cox J, Drakeley C, 2015. Use of different transmission metrics to describe malaria epidemiology in the highlands of western Kenya. Malar J 14: 418.
-
25.
Wu L, van den Hoogen LL, Slater H, Walker PG, Ghani AC, Drakeley CJ, Okell LC, 2015. Comparison of diagnostics for the detection of asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum infections to inform control and elimination strategies. Nature 2015 Dec 3 (7580): S86–S93. DOI: 10.1038/nature16039.
-
26.
Ouedraogo AL et al. 2016. Dynamics of the human infectious reservoir for malaria determined by mosquito feeding assays and ultrasensitive malaria diagnosis in Burkina Faso. J Infect Dis 213: 90–99.
-
27.
Nankabirwa J, Brooker SJ, Clarke SE, Fernando D, Gitonga CW, Schellenberg D, Greenwood B, 2014. Malaria in school‐age children in Africa: an increasingly important challenge. Trop Med Int Health 19: 1294–1309.
-
28.
Walldorf JA et al. 2015. School-age children are a reservoir of malaria infection in Malawi. PLoS One 10: e0134061.
-
29.
Noor AM, Kirui VC, Brooker SJ, Snow RW, 2009. The use of insecticide treated nets by age: implications for universal coverage in Africa. BMC Public Health 9: 369.
-
30.
Pinchoff J, Hamapumbu H, Kobayashi T, Simubali L, Stevenson JC, Norris DE, Colantuoni E, Thuma PE, Moss WJ; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2015. Factors associated with sustained use of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets following a reduction in malaria transmission in southern Zambia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 93: 954–960.
-
31.
Kanyangarara M, Hamapumbu H, Mamini E, Lupiya J, Stevenson JC, Mharakurwa S, Chaponda M, Thuma PE, Gwanzura L, Munyati S, Mulenga M, Norris DE, Moss WJ; Southern Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, 2018. Malaria knowledge and bed net use in three transmission settings in southern Africa. Malar J 17: 41.
-
32.
Proietti C, Pettinato DD, Kanoi BN, Ntege E, Crisanti A, Riley EM, Egwang TG, Drakeley C, Bousema T, 2011. Continuing intense malaria transmission in northern Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 830–837.
-
33.
Koita OA et al. 2012. False-negative rapid diagnostic tests for malaria and deletion of the histidine-rich repeat region of the hrp2 gene. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 194–198.
-
34.
Wurtz N et al. 2013. Pfhrp2 and pfhrp3 polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Dakar, Senegal: impact on rapid malaria diagnostic tests. Malar J 12: 34.
-
35.
Parr JB et al. 2017. Pfhrp2-deleted Plasmodium falciparum parasites in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: a national cross-sectional survey. J Infect Dis 216: 36–44.
-
36.
Menegon M, L’Episcopia M, Nurahmed AM, Talha AA, Nour BYM, Severini C, 2017. Identification of Plasmodium falciparum isolates lacking histidine-rich protein 2 and 3 in Eritrea. Infect Genet Evol 55: 131–134.
-
37.
Berhane A et al. 2018. Major threat to malaria control programs by Plasmodium falciparum lacking histidine-rich protein 2, Eritrea. Emerg Infect Dis 24: 462–470.
-
38.
Kozycki CT, Umulisa N, Rulisa S, Mwikarago EI, Musabyimana JP, Habimana JP, Karema C, Krogstad DJ, 2017. False-negative malaria rapid diagnostic tests in Rwanda: impact of Plasmodium falciparum isolates lacking hrp2 and declining malaria transmission. Malar J 16: 123.
-
39.
Wampfler R, Mwingira F, Javati S, Robinson L, Betuela I, Siba P, Beck HP, Mueller I, Felger I, 2013. Strategies for detection of Plasmodium species gametocytes. PLoS One 8: e76316.
-
40.
Bousema T, Drakeley C, 2011. Epidemiology and infectivity of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax gametocytes in relation to malaria control and elimination. Clin Microbiol Rev 24: 377–410.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 70 | 70 | 19 |
| Full Text Views | 904 | 212 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 273 | 50 | 0 |