World Health Organization, 2016. World Malaria Report 2016. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world-malaria-report-2016/report/en/. Accessed February 4, 2017.
Schellenberg JA, Victora CG, Mushi A, de Savigny D, Schellenberg D, Mshinda H & Bryce J Tanzania Integrated Management of Childhood Illness MCE Baseline Household Survey Study Group, 2003. Inequities among the very poor: health care for children in rural southern Tanzania. Lancet 361: 561–566.
Sulemana A, Dinye RD, 2014. Access to healthcare in rural communities in Ghana: a study of some selected communities in the Pru district. Eur J Res Soc Sci 2: 122–132.
Ministry of Health, 2013. Health Professions Regulatory Bodies Act, 2013. (Act 857). Accra, Ghana: Government of Ghana.
Asante KP et al. 2010. Community perceptions of malaria and malaria treatment behaviour in a rural district of Ghana: implications for artemisinin combination therapy. BMC Public Health 10: 409.
Tawiah T, Asante KP, Dwommoh RA, Kwarteng A, Gyaase S, Mahama E, Abokyi L, Amenga-Etego S, Hansen K, Akweongo P, 2016. Economic costs of fever to households in the middle belt of Ghana. Malar J 15: 68.
Alba S, Hetzel MW, Goodman C, Dillip A, Liana J, Mshinda H, Lengeler C, 2010. Improvements in access to malaria treatment in Tanzania after switch to artemisinin combination therapy and the introduction of accredited drug dispensing outlets-a provider perspective. Malar J 9: 164.
Wafula FN, Miriti EM, Goodman CA, 2012. Examining characteristics, knowledge and regulatory practices of specialized drug shops in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review of the literature. BMC Health Serv Res 12: 223.
Lowe RF, Montagu D, 2009. Legislation, regulation, and consolidation in the retail pharmacy sector in low-income countries. South Med Rev 2: 35–44.
Ministry of Health, 2014. Guidelines for Case Management of Malaria in Ghana, 3rd edition. Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Health.
World Health Organization, 2009. Parasitological Confirmation of Malaria Diagnosis. Report of Technical Consultation. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599412_eng.pdf. Accessed February 14, 2017.
World Health Organization, 2015. Guidelines for Treatment of Malaria, 3rd edition. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/9789241549127/en/. Accessed February 14, 2017.
Msellem MI, Mårtensson A, Rotllant G, Bhattarai A, Strömberg J, Kahigwa E, Garcia M, Petzold M, Olumese P, Ali A, 2009. Influence of rapid malaria diagnostic tests on treatment and health outcome in fever patients, Zanzibar—a crossover validation study. PLoS Med 6: e1000070.
Shillcutt S, Morel C, Goodman C, Coleman P, Bell D, Whitty CJ, Mills A, 2008. Cost-effectiveness of malaria diagnostic methods in Sub-Saharan Africa in an era of combination therapy. Bull World Health Organ 86: 101–110.
Yukich J, D’Acremont V, Kahama J, Swai N, Lengeler C, 2010. Cost savings with rapid diagnostic tests for malaria in low-transmission areas: evidence from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 83: 61–68.
Dalinjong PA, Welaga P, Akazili J, Kwarteng A, Bangha M, Oduro A, Sankoh O, Goudge J, 2017. The association between health insurance status and utilization of health services in rural northern Ghana: evidence from the introduction of the national health insurance scheme. J Health Popul Nutr 36: 42.
Danquah DA, Buabeng KO, Asante KP, Mahama E, Bart-Plange C, Owusu-Dabo E, 2016. Malaria case detection using rapid diagnostic test at the community level in Ghana: consumer perception and practitioners’ experiences. Malar J 15: 34.
Mbonye AK, Ndyomugyenyi R, Turinde A, Magnussen P, Clarke S, Chandler C, 2010. The feasibility of introducing rapid diagnostic tests for malaria in drug shops in Uganda. Malar J 9: 367.
Reda H, 2012. Improving Efficiency, Access to and Quality of the Rural Health Extension Programme in Tigray, Ethiopia: the Case of Malaria Diagnosis and Treatment. Medical Dissertations, New Series, Umeå University, Sweden.
Thiam S, Thwing J, Diallo I, Fall FB, Diouf MB, Perry R, Ndiop M, Diouf ML, Cisse MM, Diaw MM, 2012. Scale-up of home-based management of malaria based on rapid diagnostic tests and artemisinin-based combination therapy in a resource-poor country: results in Senegal. Malar J 11: 334.
Mayxay M, Newton PN, Yeung S, Pongvongsa T, Phompida S, Phetsouvanh R, White NJ, 2004. An assessment of the use of malaria rapid tests by village health volunteers in rural Laos. Trop Med Int Health 9: 325–329.
D'Acremont V, Lengeler C, Mshinda H, Mtasiwa D, Tanner M, Genton B, 2009. Time to move from presumptive malaria treatment to laboratory-confirmed diagnosis and treatment in African children with fever. PLoS Med 6: e252.
Owusu-Agyei S, Ernest A, Nettey O, Zandoh C, Sulemana A, Adda R, Amenga-Etego S, Mbacke C, 2012. Demographic patterns and trends in central Ghana: baseline indicators from the Kintampo health and demographic surveillance system. Glob Health Action 5: 19033.
Dery DB, Brown C, Asante KP, Adams M, Dosoo D, Amenga-Etego S, Wilson M, Chandramohan D, Greenwood B, Owusu-Agyei S, 2010. Patterns and seasonality of malaria transmission in the forest-savannah transitional zones of Ghana. Malar J 9: 314.
Owusu-Agyei S et al. 2009. Epidemiology of malaria in the forest-savanna transitional zone of Ghana. Malar J 8: 220.
Ministry of Health, 2009. Guidelines for Case Management of Malaria in Ghana, 2nd edition. Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Health.
Kwarteng A, Asante KP, Abokyi L, Gyaase S, Febir LG, Mahama E, Konadu DG, Tawiah T, Adu-Gyasi D, Dosoo D, 2015. Provider compliance to artemisinin-based combination therapy at primary health care facilities in the middle belt of Ghana. Malar J 14: 361.
Thiam S, Thior M, Faye B, Ndiop M, Diouf ML, Diouf MB, Diallo I, Fall FB, Ndiaye JL, Albertini A, 2011. Major reduction in anti-malarial drug consumption in Senegal after nation-wide introduction of malaria rapid diagnostic tests. PLoS One 6: e18419.
Elmardi KA, Malik EM, Abdelgadir T, Ali SH, Elsyed AH, Mudather MA, Elhassan AH, Adam I, 2009. Feasibility and acceptability of home-based management of malaria strategy adapted to Sudan’s conditions using artemisinin-based combination therapy and rapid diagnostic test. Malar J 8: 39.
Yeboah-Antwi K, Pilingana P, Macleod WB, Semrau K, Siazeele K, Kalesha P, Hamainza B, Seidenberg P, Mazimba A, Sabin L, 2010. Community case management of fever due to malaria and pneumonia in children under five in Zambia: a cluster randomized controlled trial. PLoS Med 7: 1139.
Yasuoka J, Poudel KC, Poudel-Tandukar K, Nguon C, Ly P, Socheat D, Jimba M, 2010. Assessing the quality of service of village malaria workers to strengthen community-based malaria control in Cambodia. Malar J 9: 109.
Wasunna B, Zurovac D, Goodman CA, Snow RW, 2008. Why don’t health workers prescribe ACT? A qualitative study of factors affecting the prescription of artemether-lumefantrine. Malar J 7: 29.
Chandler CI, Jones C, Boniface G, Juma K, Reyburn H, Whitty CJ, 2008. Guidelines and mindlines: why do clinical staff over-diagnose malaria in Tanzania? A qualitative study. Malar J 7: 53.
Mockenhaupt FP et al. 2004. Manifestation and outcome of severe malaria in children in northern Ghana. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71: 167–172.
Lubell Y et al. 2011. Likely health outcomes for untreated acute febrile illness in the tropics in decision and economic models; a Delphi survey. PLoS One 6: e17439.
Arora G, Sajid A, Kalia VC, eds, 2017. Drug Resistance in Bacteria, Fungi, Malaria, and Cancer. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 429–447.
White NJ, Olliaro PL, 1996. Strategies for the prevention of antimalarial drug resistance: rationale for combination chemotherapy for malaria. Parasitol Today 12: 399–401.
World Health Organization, 2001. WHO Global Strategy for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/drugresistance/WHO_Global_Strategy_English.pdf. Accessed March 10, 2017.
Ashley EA et al. Tracking Resistance to Artemisinin Collaboration (TRAC), 2014. Spread of artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 371: 411–423.
World Health Organization, 2014. Emergence and Spread of Artemisinin Resistance Calls for Intensified Efforts to Withdraw Oral Artemisinin-Based Monotherapy from the Market. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/../atoz/oral-artemisinin-based-monotherapies-1may2014.pdf. Accessed March 10, 2017.
Keri L, Kaye D, Sibylle K, 2010. Referral practices and perceived barriers to timely obstetric care among Ugandan traditional birth attendants (TBA). Afr Health Sci 10: 75.
Mbonye AK, Buregyeya E, Rutebemberwa E, Clarke SE, Lal S, Hansen KS, Magnussen P, LaRussa P, 2017. Referral of children seeking care at private health facilities in Uganda. Malar J 16: 76.
Thomson A, Khogali M, de Smet M, Reid T, Mukhtar A, Peterson S, von Schreeb J, 2011. Low referral completion of rapid diagnostic test-negative patients in community-based treatment of malaria in Sierra Leone. Malar J 10: 94.
Oshikoya K, Ojo O, 2008. Medication errors in paediatric outpatient prescriptions of a teaching hospital in Nigeria. Nig Q J Hosp Med 17: 74–78.
Larson CP, Sauvé L, Senkungu JK, Arifeen SE, Brant R, 2015. Development and validation of weight, height and age bands to guide the prescription of fixed-dose dispersible tablet formulations. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther 20: 24–32.
Hansen KS, Pedrazzoli D, Mbonye A, Clarke S, Cundill B, Magnussen P, Yeung S, 2012. Willingness-to-pay for a rapid malaria diagnostic test and artemisinin-based combination therapy from private drug shops in Mukono District, Uganda. Health Policy Plan 28: 185–196.
Lebetkin E, Orr T, Dzasi K, Keyes E, Shelus V, Mensah S, Nagai H, Stanback J, 2014. Injectable contraceptive sales at licensed chemical seller shops in Ghana: access and reported use in rural and periurban communities. Int Perspect Sex Reprod Health 40: 21–27.
World Health Organization, 2007. Task Shifting: Rational Redistribution of Tasks among Health Workforce Teams: Global Recommendations and Guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/healthsystems/TTR-TaskShifting.pdf. Accessed June 20, 2018.
Ankomah A, Adebayo SB, Arogundade ED, Anyanti J, Nwokolo E, Inyang U, Ipadeola OB, Meremiku M, 2014. The effect of mass media campaign on the use of insecticide-treated bed nets among pregnant women in Nigeria. Malar Res Treat 2014 Article ID 694863, 7 pages, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/694863.
Baiden F, Malm K, Bart-Plange C, Hodgson A, Chandramohan D, Webster J, Owusu-Agyei S, 2014. Shifting from presumptive to test-based management of malaria-technical basis and implications for malaria control in Ghana. Ghana Med J 48: 112–122.
Bastiaens GJ, Bousema T, Leslie T, 2014. Scale-up of malaria rapid diagnostic tests and artemisinin-based combination therapy: challenges and perspectives in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS Med 11: e1001590.
Boadu NY, Amuasi J, Ansong D, Einsiedel E, Menon D, Yanow SK, 2016. Challenges with implementing malaria rapid diagnostic tests at primary care facilities in a Ghanaian district: a qualitative study. Malar J 15: 126.
Sridhar D, 2010. Seven challenges in international development assistance for health and ways forward. J Law Med Ethics 38: 459–469.
Olcay M, Laing R, 2004. Pharmaceutical Tariffs: What is Their Effect on Prices, Protection of Local Industry and Revenue Generation? Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/intellectualproperty/studies/TariffsOnEssentialMedicines.pdf. Accessed March 20, 2018.
Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
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Abstract Views | 951 | 730 | 20 |
Full Text Views | 666 | 11 | 0 |
PDF Downloads | 164 | 10 | 0 |
The sale of artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) by private licensed chemical shops (LCS) without testing is contrary to current policy recommendations. This study assessed the accuracy and perception of test-based management of malaria using malaria rapid diagnostic test (mRDT) kits at private LCS in two predominantly rural areas in the middle part of Ghana. Clients presenting at LCS with fever or other signs and symptoms suspected to be malaria in the absence of signs of severe malaria were tested with mRDT by trained attendants and treated based on the national malaria treatment guidelines. Using structured questionnaires, exit interviews were conducted within 48 hours and a follow-up interview on day 7 (±3 days). Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were also conducted to assess stakeholders’ perception on the use of mRDT at LCS. About 79.0% (N = 1,797) of clients reported with a fever. Sixty-six percent (947/1,426) of febrile clients had a positive mRDT result. Eighty-six percent (815/947) of clients with uncomplicated malaria were treated with the recommended ACT. About 97.8% (790/808) of clients with uncomplicated malaria treated with ACT were reported to be well by day 7. However, referral for those with negative mRDT results was very low (4.1%, 27/662). A high proportion of clients with a positive mRDT result received the recommended malaria treatment. Test-based management of malaria by LCS attendants was found to be feasible and acceptable by the community members and other stakeholders. Successful implementation will however require effective referral, supervision and quality control systems.
Financial support: The study was funded by the Global Fund through the Ghana National Malaria Control Program of the Ghana Health Service.
Authors’ addresses: Anthony Kwarteng, Lawrence Gyabaa Febir, Theresa Tawiah, George Adjei, Solomon Nyame, Francis Agbokey, Mieks Twumasi, Seeba Amenga-Etego, and Kwaku Poku Asante, Kintampo Health Research Center (KHRC), Ghana Health Service, Kintampo, Ghana, E-mails: anthony.kwarteng@kintampo-hrc.org, lawrence.febir@kintampo-hrc.org, theresa.tawiah@kintampo-hrc.org, george.adjei@kintampo-hrc.org, solomon.nyame@kintampo-hrc.org, francis.agbokey@kintampo-hrc.org, mieks.twumasi@kintampo-hrc.org, seeba.ae@kintampo-hrc.org, and kwakupoku.asante@kintampo-hrc.org. Keziah L. Malm and Constance Bart-Plange, The National Malaria Control Program, Ghana Health Service, Accra, Ghana, E-mails: keziah.malm@ghsmail.org and constance.bartplange@ghsmail.org. Daniel Amaning Danquah, The Pharmacy Council of Ghana, Ministry of Health, Accra, Ghana, E-mail: dandanquah45@gmail.com. Seth Owusu-Agyei, Institute of Health Research, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana, E-mail: sowusuagyei@uhas.edu.gh.
World Health Organization, 2016. World Malaria Report 2016. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world-malaria-report-2016/report/en/. Accessed February 4, 2017.
Schellenberg JA, Victora CG, Mushi A, de Savigny D, Schellenberg D, Mshinda H & Bryce J Tanzania Integrated Management of Childhood Illness MCE Baseline Household Survey Study Group, 2003. Inequities among the very poor: health care for children in rural southern Tanzania. Lancet 361: 561–566.
Sulemana A, Dinye RD, 2014. Access to healthcare in rural communities in Ghana: a study of some selected communities in the Pru district. Eur J Res Soc Sci 2: 122–132.
Ministry of Health, 2013. Health Professions Regulatory Bodies Act, 2013. (Act 857). Accra, Ghana: Government of Ghana.
Asante KP et al. 2010. Community perceptions of malaria and malaria treatment behaviour in a rural district of Ghana: implications for artemisinin combination therapy. BMC Public Health 10: 409.
Tawiah T, Asante KP, Dwommoh RA, Kwarteng A, Gyaase S, Mahama E, Abokyi L, Amenga-Etego S, Hansen K, Akweongo P, 2016. Economic costs of fever to households in the middle belt of Ghana. Malar J 15: 68.
Alba S, Hetzel MW, Goodman C, Dillip A, Liana J, Mshinda H, Lengeler C, 2010. Improvements in access to malaria treatment in Tanzania after switch to artemisinin combination therapy and the introduction of accredited drug dispensing outlets-a provider perspective. Malar J 9: 164.
Wafula FN, Miriti EM, Goodman CA, 2012. Examining characteristics, knowledge and regulatory practices of specialized drug shops in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review of the literature. BMC Health Serv Res 12: 223.
Lowe RF, Montagu D, 2009. Legislation, regulation, and consolidation in the retail pharmacy sector in low-income countries. South Med Rev 2: 35–44.
Ministry of Health, 2014. Guidelines for Case Management of Malaria in Ghana, 3rd edition. Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Health.
World Health Organization, 2009. Parasitological Confirmation of Malaria Diagnosis. Report of Technical Consultation. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599412_eng.pdf. Accessed February 14, 2017.
World Health Organization, 2015. Guidelines for Treatment of Malaria, 3rd edition. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/9789241549127/en/. Accessed February 14, 2017.
Msellem MI, Mårtensson A, Rotllant G, Bhattarai A, Strömberg J, Kahigwa E, Garcia M, Petzold M, Olumese P, Ali A, 2009. Influence of rapid malaria diagnostic tests on treatment and health outcome in fever patients, Zanzibar—a crossover validation study. PLoS Med 6: e1000070.
Shillcutt S, Morel C, Goodman C, Coleman P, Bell D, Whitty CJ, Mills A, 2008. Cost-effectiveness of malaria diagnostic methods in Sub-Saharan Africa in an era of combination therapy. Bull World Health Organ 86: 101–110.
Yukich J, D’Acremont V, Kahama J, Swai N, Lengeler C, 2010. Cost savings with rapid diagnostic tests for malaria in low-transmission areas: evidence from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 83: 61–68.
Dalinjong PA, Welaga P, Akazili J, Kwarteng A, Bangha M, Oduro A, Sankoh O, Goudge J, 2017. The association between health insurance status and utilization of health services in rural northern Ghana: evidence from the introduction of the national health insurance scheme. J Health Popul Nutr 36: 42.
Danquah DA, Buabeng KO, Asante KP, Mahama E, Bart-Plange C, Owusu-Dabo E, 2016. Malaria case detection using rapid diagnostic test at the community level in Ghana: consumer perception and practitioners’ experiences. Malar J 15: 34.
Mbonye AK, Ndyomugyenyi R, Turinde A, Magnussen P, Clarke S, Chandler C, 2010. The feasibility of introducing rapid diagnostic tests for malaria in drug shops in Uganda. Malar J 9: 367.
Reda H, 2012. Improving Efficiency, Access to and Quality of the Rural Health Extension Programme in Tigray, Ethiopia: the Case of Malaria Diagnosis and Treatment. Medical Dissertations, New Series, Umeå University, Sweden.
Thiam S, Thwing J, Diallo I, Fall FB, Diouf MB, Perry R, Ndiop M, Diouf ML, Cisse MM, Diaw MM, 2012. Scale-up of home-based management of malaria based on rapid diagnostic tests and artemisinin-based combination therapy in a resource-poor country: results in Senegal. Malar J 11: 334.
Mayxay M, Newton PN, Yeung S, Pongvongsa T, Phompida S, Phetsouvanh R, White NJ, 2004. An assessment of the use of malaria rapid tests by village health volunteers in rural Laos. Trop Med Int Health 9: 325–329.
D'Acremont V, Lengeler C, Mshinda H, Mtasiwa D, Tanner M, Genton B, 2009. Time to move from presumptive malaria treatment to laboratory-confirmed diagnosis and treatment in African children with fever. PLoS Med 6: e252.
Owusu-Agyei S, Ernest A, Nettey O, Zandoh C, Sulemana A, Adda R, Amenga-Etego S, Mbacke C, 2012. Demographic patterns and trends in central Ghana: baseline indicators from the Kintampo health and demographic surveillance system. Glob Health Action 5: 19033.
Dery DB, Brown C, Asante KP, Adams M, Dosoo D, Amenga-Etego S, Wilson M, Chandramohan D, Greenwood B, Owusu-Agyei S, 2010. Patterns and seasonality of malaria transmission in the forest-savannah transitional zones of Ghana. Malar J 9: 314.
Owusu-Agyei S et al. 2009. Epidemiology of malaria in the forest-savanna transitional zone of Ghana. Malar J 8: 220.
Ministry of Health, 2009. Guidelines for Case Management of Malaria in Ghana, 2nd edition. Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Health.
Kwarteng A, Asante KP, Abokyi L, Gyaase S, Febir LG, Mahama E, Konadu DG, Tawiah T, Adu-Gyasi D, Dosoo D, 2015. Provider compliance to artemisinin-based combination therapy at primary health care facilities in the middle belt of Ghana. Malar J 14: 361.
Thiam S, Thior M, Faye B, Ndiop M, Diouf ML, Diouf MB, Diallo I, Fall FB, Ndiaye JL, Albertini A, 2011. Major reduction in anti-malarial drug consumption in Senegal after nation-wide introduction of malaria rapid diagnostic tests. PLoS One 6: e18419.
Elmardi KA, Malik EM, Abdelgadir T, Ali SH, Elsyed AH, Mudather MA, Elhassan AH, Adam I, 2009. Feasibility and acceptability of home-based management of malaria strategy adapted to Sudan’s conditions using artemisinin-based combination therapy and rapid diagnostic test. Malar J 8: 39.
Yeboah-Antwi K, Pilingana P, Macleod WB, Semrau K, Siazeele K, Kalesha P, Hamainza B, Seidenberg P, Mazimba A, Sabin L, 2010. Community case management of fever due to malaria and pneumonia in children under five in Zambia: a cluster randomized controlled trial. PLoS Med 7: 1139.
Yasuoka J, Poudel KC, Poudel-Tandukar K, Nguon C, Ly P, Socheat D, Jimba M, 2010. Assessing the quality of service of village malaria workers to strengthen community-based malaria control in Cambodia. Malar J 9: 109.
Wasunna B, Zurovac D, Goodman CA, Snow RW, 2008. Why don’t health workers prescribe ACT? A qualitative study of factors affecting the prescription of artemether-lumefantrine. Malar J 7: 29.
Chandler CI, Jones C, Boniface G, Juma K, Reyburn H, Whitty CJ, 2008. Guidelines and mindlines: why do clinical staff over-diagnose malaria in Tanzania? A qualitative study. Malar J 7: 53.
Mockenhaupt FP et al. 2004. Manifestation and outcome of severe malaria in children in northern Ghana. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71: 167–172.
Lubell Y et al. 2011. Likely health outcomes for untreated acute febrile illness in the tropics in decision and economic models; a Delphi survey. PLoS One 6: e17439.
Arora G, Sajid A, Kalia VC, eds, 2017. Drug Resistance in Bacteria, Fungi, Malaria, and Cancer. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 429–447.
White NJ, Olliaro PL, 1996. Strategies for the prevention of antimalarial drug resistance: rationale for combination chemotherapy for malaria. Parasitol Today 12: 399–401.
World Health Organization, 2001. WHO Global Strategy for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/drugresistance/WHO_Global_Strategy_English.pdf. Accessed March 10, 2017.
Ashley EA et al. Tracking Resistance to Artemisinin Collaboration (TRAC), 2014. Spread of artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 371: 411–423.
World Health Organization, 2014. Emergence and Spread of Artemisinin Resistance Calls for Intensified Efforts to Withdraw Oral Artemisinin-Based Monotherapy from the Market. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/../atoz/oral-artemisinin-based-monotherapies-1may2014.pdf. Accessed March 10, 2017.
Keri L, Kaye D, Sibylle K, 2010. Referral practices and perceived barriers to timely obstetric care among Ugandan traditional birth attendants (TBA). Afr Health Sci 10: 75.
Mbonye AK, Buregyeya E, Rutebemberwa E, Clarke SE, Lal S, Hansen KS, Magnussen P, LaRussa P, 2017. Referral of children seeking care at private health facilities in Uganda. Malar J 16: 76.
Thomson A, Khogali M, de Smet M, Reid T, Mukhtar A, Peterson S, von Schreeb J, 2011. Low referral completion of rapid diagnostic test-negative patients in community-based treatment of malaria in Sierra Leone. Malar J 10: 94.
Oshikoya K, Ojo O, 2008. Medication errors in paediatric outpatient prescriptions of a teaching hospital in Nigeria. Nig Q J Hosp Med 17: 74–78.
Larson CP, Sauvé L, Senkungu JK, Arifeen SE, Brant R, 2015. Development and validation of weight, height and age bands to guide the prescription of fixed-dose dispersible tablet formulations. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther 20: 24–32.
Hansen KS, Pedrazzoli D, Mbonye A, Clarke S, Cundill B, Magnussen P, Yeung S, 2012. Willingness-to-pay for a rapid malaria diagnostic test and artemisinin-based combination therapy from private drug shops in Mukono District, Uganda. Health Policy Plan 28: 185–196.
Lebetkin E, Orr T, Dzasi K, Keyes E, Shelus V, Mensah S, Nagai H, Stanback J, 2014. Injectable contraceptive sales at licensed chemical seller shops in Ghana: access and reported use in rural and periurban communities. Int Perspect Sex Reprod Health 40: 21–27.
World Health Organization, 2007. Task Shifting: Rational Redistribution of Tasks among Health Workforce Teams: Global Recommendations and Guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/healthsystems/TTR-TaskShifting.pdf. Accessed June 20, 2018.
Ankomah A, Adebayo SB, Arogundade ED, Anyanti J, Nwokolo E, Inyang U, Ipadeola OB, Meremiku M, 2014. The effect of mass media campaign on the use of insecticide-treated bed nets among pregnant women in Nigeria. Malar Res Treat 2014 Article ID 694863, 7 pages, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/694863.
Baiden F, Malm K, Bart-Plange C, Hodgson A, Chandramohan D, Webster J, Owusu-Agyei S, 2014. Shifting from presumptive to test-based management of malaria-technical basis and implications for malaria control in Ghana. Ghana Med J 48: 112–122.
Bastiaens GJ, Bousema T, Leslie T, 2014. Scale-up of malaria rapid diagnostic tests and artemisinin-based combination therapy: challenges and perspectives in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS Med 11: e1001590.
Boadu NY, Amuasi J, Ansong D, Einsiedel E, Menon D, Yanow SK, 2016. Challenges with implementing malaria rapid diagnostic tests at primary care facilities in a Ghanaian district: a qualitative study. Malar J 15: 126.
Sridhar D, 2010. Seven challenges in international development assistance for health and ways forward. J Law Med Ethics 38: 459–469.
Olcay M, Laing R, 2004. Pharmaceutical Tariffs: What is Their Effect on Prices, Protection of Local Industry and Revenue Generation? Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/intellectualproperty/studies/TariffsOnEssentialMedicines.pdf. Accessed March 20, 2018.
Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 951 | 730 | 20 |
Full Text Views | 666 | 11 | 0 |
PDF Downloads | 164 | 10 | 0 |