ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
WHO, 2015. Global Targets 2025 to Improve Maternal, Infant and Young Child Nutrition. Available at: http://www.who.int/nutrition/global-target-2025/en/. Accessed October 13, 2015.
-
2.
de Onis M, Dewey KG, Borghi E, Onyango AW, Blössner M, Daelmans B, Piwoz E, Branca F, 2013. The World Health Organization’s global target for reducing childhood stunting by 2025: rationale and proposed actions. Matern Child Nutr 9 (Suppl 2): 6–26.
-
3.
Stewart CP, Iannotti L, Dewey KG, Michaelsen KF, Onyango AW, 2013. Contextualising complementary feeding in a broader framework for stunting prevention. Matern Child Nutr 9 (Suppl 2): 27–45.
-
4.
Fink G, Günther I, Hill K, 2011. The effect of water and sanitation on child health: evidence from the demographic and health surveys 1986–2007. Int J Epidemiol 40: 1196–1204.
-
5.
Spears D, Ghosh A, Cumming O, 2013. Open defecation and childhood stunting in India: an ecological analysis of new data from 112 districts. PLoS One 8: e73784.
-
6.
Null C et al. 2018. Effects of water quality, sanitation, handwashing, and nutritional interventions on diarrhoea and child growth in rural Kenya: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet Glob Health 6: e316–e329.
-
7.
Luby SP et al. 2018. Effects of water quality, sanitation, handwashing, and nutritional interventions on diarrhoea and child growth in rural Bangladesh: a cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet Glob Health 6: e302–e315.
-
8.
Humphrey JH, 2009. Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing. Lancet 374: 1032–1035.
-
9.
George CM et al. 2015. Fecal markers of environmental enteropathy are associated with animal exposure and caregiver hygiene in Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 93: 269–275.
-
10.
Ngure FM et al. 2013. Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 709–716.
-
11.
Petri WA, Naylor C, Haque R, 2014. Environmental enteropathy and malnutrition: do we know enough to intervene? BMC Med 12: 187.
-
12.
Campbell DI, Elia M, Lunn PG, 2003. Growth faltering in rural Gambian infants is associated with impaired small intestinal barrier function, leading to endotoxemia and systemic inflammation. J Nutr 133: 1332–1338.
-
13.
Lin A, Arnold BF, Afreen S, Goto R, Huda TMN, Haque R, Raqib R, Unicomb L, Ahmed T, Colford JM Jr., 2013. Household environmental conditions are associated with enteropathy and impaired growth in rural Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 130–137.
-
14.
Kosek M et al. 2013. Fecal markers of intestinal inflammation and permeability associated with the subsequent acquisition of linear growth deficits in infants. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88: 390–396.
-
15.
Sudfeld CR, McCoy DC, Fink G, Muhihi A, Bellinger DC, Masanja H, Smith ER, Danaei G, Ezzati M, Fawzi WW, 2015. Malnutrition and its determinants are associated with suboptimal cognitive, communication, and motor development in tanzanian children. J Nutr 145: 2705–2714.
-
16.
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) [Tanzania] and ICF Macro, 2011. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 2010. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: NBS and ICF Macro.
-
17.
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) [Tanzania] and ICF Macro, 2005. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 2004. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: NBS and ORC Macro.
-
18.
Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children (MoHCDGEC) [Tanzania, Mainland], Ministry of Health (MOH) [Zanzibar], National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), office of the Government Statistician (OCGS), ICF, 2016. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey (TDHS-MIS) 2015–16. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Rockville, MD: MoHCDGEC, MoH, NBS, OCGS, and ICF.
-
19.
WHO, 2010. Nutrition Landscape Information System (NLIS): Country Profile Indicators—Interpretation Guide. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
20.
IFPRI, 2014. Enhanced Homestead Food Production Plus+ Program in the Lake Zone, Tanzania. ClinicalTrials.gov. Available at: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02259166?term=MNP&cntry1=AF%3ATZ&rank=1. Accessed August 14, 2017.
-
21.
Erhardt JG, Estes JE, Pfeiffer CM, Biesalski HK, Craft NE, 2004. Combined measurement of ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor, retinol binding protein, and C-reactive protein by an inexpensive, sensitive, and simple sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. J Nutr 134: 3127–3132.
-
22.
George CM et al. 2016. Unsafe child feces disposal is associated with environmental enteropathy and impaired growth. J Pediatr 176: 43–49.
-
23.
Thurnham DI, McCabe GP, Northrop-Clewes CA, Nestel P, 2003. Effects of subclinical infection on plasma retinol concentrations and assessment of prevalence of vitamin A deficiency: meta-analysis. Lancet 362: 2052–2058.
-
24.
World Health Organization, 2006. Child growth standards: length/height-for-age. Available at: http://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/height_for_age/en/. Accessed October 13, 2015.
-
25.
WHO, 1995. Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. WHO Technical Report Series, 854. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
26.
World Health Organization, 2011. Haemoglobin Concentrations for the Diagnosis of Anaemia and Assessment of Severity. Vitamin and Mineral Nutrition Information System (WHO/NMH/NHD/MNM/11.1). Available at: http://www.who.int/vmnis/indicators/haemoglobin.pdf. Accessed June 15, 2015.
-
27.
WHO, UNICEF, US Agency for International Development, Academy for Educational Development–Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance-2, University of California at Davis, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2008. Indicators for Assessing Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices: Part 1: Definitions. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
28.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), FHI360, 2016. Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women: A Guide for Measurement. Rome, Italy: FAO.
-
29.
Ahmed I, Begum R, 2010. Hand Washing Practice in ASEH Project Area: A Study for Impact Monitoring. Available at: https://www.wsscc.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Hand-Washing-Practice-in-ASEH-Project-Area-A-Study-for-Impact-Monitoring-South-Asia-Practitioners-Workshop-Bangladesh-February-2010.pdf. Accessed October 15, 2015.
-
30.
WHO, UNICEF, 2015. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation. Available at: http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/. Accessed August 18, 2017.
-
31.
Coates J, Swindale A, Bilinsky P, 2007. Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for Measurement of Household Food Access: Indicator Guide (v. 3). Washington, DC: FHI360.
-
32.
Maxwell D, Coates J, Vaitla B, 2013. How Do Different Indicators of Household Food Security Compare ? Empirical Evidence from Tigray. Somerville, MA: Feinstein International Center.
-
33.
Deitchler M, Ballard T, Swindale A, Coates J, 2011. Introducing a Simple Measure of Household Hunger for Cross-Cultural Use. Washington, DC: FANTA-2 & AED.
-
34.
Merrill RD, Burke RM, Northrop-Clewes CA, Rayco-Solon P, Flores-Ayala R, Namaste SM, Serdula MK, Suchdev PS, 2017. Factors associated with inflammation in preschool children and women of reproductive age: biomarkers reflecting inflammation and nutritional determinants of anemia (BRINDA) project. Am J Clin Nutr 106 (Suppl 1): 348S–358S.
-
35.
Benzoni N, Korpe P, Thakwalakwa C, Maleta K, Stephenson K, Manary M, Manary M, 2015. Plasma endotoxin core antibody concentration and linear growth are unrelated in rural Malawian children aged 2–5 years. BMC Res Notes 8: 258.
-
36.
Bender R, Lange S, 2001. Adjusting for multiple testing—when and how? J Clin Epidemiol 54: 343–349.
-
37.
Mann CJ, 2003. Observational research methods. Research design II: cohort, cross sectional, and case-control studies. Emerg Med J 20: 54–60.
-
38.
Ministry of Health and Social Welfare [Tanzania], 2011. Guidelines for Assuring Safety of Preventive Chemotherapy. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: National Programme for Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases and Tanzania Food and Drugs Authority.
-
39.
Kosek MN et al. 2017. Causal pathways from enteropathogens to environmental enteropathy: findings from the MAL-ED birth cohort study. EBioMedicine 18: 109–117.
-
40.
Prendergast AJ, Rukobo S, Chasekwa B, Mutasa K, Ntozini R, Mbuya MNN, Jones A, Moulton LH, Stoltzfus RJ, Humphrey JH, 2014. Stunting is characterized by chronic inflammation in Zimbabwean infants. PLoS One 9: e86928.
-
41.
Korpe PS, Petri WA Jr., 2012. Environmental enteropathy: critical implications of a poorly understood condition. Trends Mol Med 18: 328–336.
-
42.
Oluwafemi F, Ibeh IN, 2011. Microbial contamination of seven major weaning foods in Nigeria. J Health Popul Nutr 29: 415–419.
-
43.
Ygberg S, Nilsson A, 2012. The developing immune system—from foetus to toddler. Acta Paediatr 101: 120–127.
-
44.
Simon AK, Hollander GA, McMichael A, 2015. Evolution of the immune system in humans from infancy to old age. Proc Biol Sci 282: 20143085.
-
45.
Victora CG, de Onis M, Hallal PC, Blossner M, Shrimpton R, 2010. Worldwide timing of growth faltering: revisiting implications for interventions. Pediatrics 125: e473–e480.
-
46.
Jaeggi T et al. 2014. Iron fortification adversely affects the gut microbiome, increases pathogen abundance and induces intestinal inflammation in Kenyan infants. Gut 64: 731–742.
-
47.
Mbuya MNN, Humphrey JH, 2016. Preventing environmental enteric dysfunction through improved water, sanitation and hygiene: an opportunity for stunting reduction in developing countries. Matern Child Nutr 12: 106–120.
-
48.
Rah JH, Cronin AA, Badgaiyan B, Aguayo VM, Coates S, Ahmed S, 2015. Household sanitation and personal hygiene practices are associated with child stunting in rural India: a cross-sectional analysis of surveys. BMJ Open 5: e005180.
-
49.
HKI, 2014. WASH Formative Research for CHANGE. Mwanza, Tanzania: Helen Keller International.
-
50.
Khatri RB, Mishra SR, Khanal V, Choulagai B, 2015. Factors associated with underweight among children of former-Kamaiyas in Nepal. Front Public Health 3: 11.
-
51.
Marriott BP, White A, Hadden L, Davies JC, Wallingford JC, 2012. World Health Organization (WHO) infant and young child feeding indicators: associations with growth measures in 14 low‐income countries. Matern Child Nutr 8: 354–370.
-
52.
Onyango AW, Borghi E, de Onis M, Casanovas M del C, Garza C, 2013. Complementary feeding and attained linear growth among 6–23-month-old children. Public Health Nutr 17: 1–9.
-
53.
Abu-Jawdeh M, Becquey E, Birba O, Golan J, Le Port A, Olney DK, Rawat R, Van Den Bold M, 2015. Helen Keller International’s Creating Homestead Agriculture for Nutrition and Gender Equity (CHANGE) Program in Tanzania—Baseline Report. Washington, DC: Helen Keller International and IFPRI.
-
54.
Psaki S et al. 2012. Household food access and child malnutrition: results from the eight-country MAL-ED study. Popul Health Metr 10: 24.
-
55.
Young SL, Sherman PW, Lucks JB, Pelto GH, 2011. Why on earth?: evaluating hypotheses about the physiological functions of human geophagy. Q Rev Biol 86: 97–120.
-
56.
Kawai K, Saathoff E, Antelman G, Msamanga G, Fawzi WW, 2009. Geophagy (soil-eating) in relation to anemia and helminth infection among HIV-infected pregnant women in Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 36–43.
-
57.
Young SL, Goodman D, Farag TH, Ali SM, Khatib MR, Khalfan SS, Tielsch JM, Stoltzfus RJ, 2007. Geophagia is not associated with Trichuris or hookworm transmission in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101: 766–772.
-
58.
Siza JE, Kaatano GM, Chai JY, Eom KS, Rim HJ, Yong TS, Min DY, Chang SY, Ko Y, Changalucha JM, 2015. Prevalence of schistosomes and soil-transmitted helminths and morbidity associated with schistosomiasis among adult population in lake Victoria basin, Tanzania. Korean J Parasitol 53: 525–533.
-
59.
WHO, 2018. Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections—Key Facts. Available at: http://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/soil-transmitted-helminth-infections. Accessed July 13, 2018.
-
60.
WHO, 2015. Assessing the Epidemiology of Soil-Transmitted Helminths during a Transmission Assessment Survey in the Global Programme for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
61.
Arndt MB, Richardson BA, Ahmed T, Mahfuz M, Haque R, John-Stewart GC, Denno DM, Petri WA, Kosek M, Walson JL, 2016. Fecal markers of environmental enteropathy and subsequent growth in Bangladeshi children. Am J Trop Med Hyg 95: 694–701.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 2524 | 2185 | 69 |
| Full Text Views | 536 | 12 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 236 | 11 | 0 |
Growth Status, Inflammation, and Enteropathy in Young Children in Northern Tanzania
James P. Wirth
James P. Wirth
GroundWork, Fläsch, Switzerland;
Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR)-204, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IRD/Université de Montpellier/SupAgro, Montpellier, France;
Search for other papers by James P. Wirth in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR)-204, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IRD/Université de Montpellier/SupAgro, Montpellier, France;
Search for other papers by James P. Wirth in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Brenda Kitilya
Brenda Kitilya
National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Mwanza, Tanzania;
Search for other papers by Brenda Kitilya in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Brenda Kitilya in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Nicolai Petry
Nicolai Petry
GroundWork, Fläsch, Switzerland;
Search for other papers by Nicolai Petry in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Nicolai Petry in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
George PrayGod
George PrayGod
National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Mwanza, Tanzania;
Search for other papers by George PrayGod in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by George PrayGod in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Stephen Veryser
Stephen Veryser
Helen Keller International (HKI), Mwanza, Tanzania;
Search for other papers by Stephen Veryser in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Stephen Veryser in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Julius Mngara
Julius Mngara
National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Mwanza, Tanzania;
Search for other papers by Julius Mngara in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Julius Mngara in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Christian Zwahlen
Christian Zwahlen
GroundWork, Fläsch, Switzerland;
Search for other papers by Christian Zwahlen in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Christian Zwahlen in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Frank Wieringa
Frank Wieringa
Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR)-204, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IRD/Université de Montpellier/SupAgro, Montpellier, France;
Search for other papers by Frank Wieringa in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Frank Wieringa in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Jacques Berger
Jacques Berger
Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR)-204, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IRD/Université de Montpellier/SupAgro, Montpellier, France;
Search for other papers by Jacques Berger in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Jacques Berger in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Mercedes de Onis
Mercedes de Onis
World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland;
Search for other papers by Mercedes de Onis in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Mercedes de Onis in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Fabian Rohner
Fabian Rohner
GroundWork, Fläsch, Switzerland;
Search for other papers by Fabian Rohner in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Fabian Rohner in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Elodie Becquey
Elodie Becquey
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Dakar, Senegal
Search for other papers by Elodie Becquey in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Elodie Becquey in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Recent evidence suggests that enteropathy of the gut due to environmental conditions (i.e., environmental enteropathy [EE]) in young children is negatively associated with linear growth. Using a case–control study design, we examined the potential determinants of stunting in stunted and non-stunted children 22–28 months of age. Potential determinants included inflammation biomarkers C-reactive protein, alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), and endotoxin-core antibody (EndoCAb) measured in serum samples; enteropathy markers alpha-1-antitrypsin, neopterin, myeloperoxidase (MPO) measured in stools samples; and demographic, health, feeding, and household characteristics. We also explored the determinants of EE by testing associations of composite EE scores and individual biomarkers with potential risk factors. Fifty-two percent of children (n = 310) were found to be stunted, and mean height-for-age Z scores (HAZ) were −1.22 (standard deviation [SD] ± 0.56) among non-stunted (control) children and −2.82 (SD ± 0.61) among stunted (case) children. Child HAZ was significantly (P < 0.05) and inversely associated with AGP, and child stunting was significantly positively associated (P < 0.05) with low dietary diversity, severe household hunger, and absence of soap in the household. Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein and EndoCAb concentrations were also significantly higher (P < 0.05) among children in households with no soap. Our study documented a seemingly localized cultural practice of young children (25%) being fed their dirty bathwater, which was associated with significantly higher concentrations of MPO (P < 0.05). Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein showed the most consistent associations with child growth and hygiene practices, but fecal EE biomarkers were not associated with child growth. The lack of retrospective data in our study may explain the null findings related to fecal EE biomarkers and child growth.
Author Notes
Disclaimer: The authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this publication and they do not necessarily represent the decisions, policy or views of the World Health Organization.
Financial support: The overall study design and primary data collection for the CHANGE project, including the blood samples, anthropometric measurements, and household surveys, were funded by Global Affairs Canada through a grant to Helen Keller International and by the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH) led by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Funding for data collection of stool samples was provided by GroundWork, and funding for laboratory analysis (stool biomarkers and EndoCAb), data analysis, and manuscript writing was provided by the World Health Organization (SPHQ 2016/657457).
Authors’ addresses: James P. Wirth, Nicolai Petry, Christian Zwahlen, and Fabian Rohner, GroundWork, Fläsch, Switzerland, E-mails: james@groundworkhealth.org, nico@groundworkhealth.org, chriszwahlo@gmail.com, and fabian@groundworkhealth.org. Brenda Kitilya, George PrayGod, and Julius Mngara, National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Mwanza, Tanzania, E-mails: brendawilfredkitilya@yahoo.co.uk, gpraygod@yahoo.com, and juliusmngara@yahoo.com. Stephen Veryser, Helen Keller International (HKI), Mwanza, Tanzania, E-mail: sveryser@gmail.com. Frank Wieringa and Jacques Berger, UMR-204, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IRD/UM/SupAgro, Montpellier, France, E-mails: franck.wieringa@ird.fr and jacques.berger@ird.fr. Mercedes de Onis, World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland, E-mail: deonism@who.int. Elodie Becquey, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Dakar, Senegal, E-mail: e.becquey@cgiar.org.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
WHO, 2015. Global Targets 2025 to Improve Maternal, Infant and Young Child Nutrition. Available at: http://www.who.int/nutrition/global-target-2025/en/. Accessed October 13, 2015.
-
2.
de Onis M, Dewey KG, Borghi E, Onyango AW, Blössner M, Daelmans B, Piwoz E, Branca F, 2013. The World Health Organization’s global target for reducing childhood stunting by 2025: rationale and proposed actions. Matern Child Nutr 9 (Suppl 2): 6–26.
-
3.
Stewart CP, Iannotti L, Dewey KG, Michaelsen KF, Onyango AW, 2013. Contextualising complementary feeding in a broader framework for stunting prevention. Matern Child Nutr 9 (Suppl 2): 27–45.
-
4.
Fink G, Günther I, Hill K, 2011. The effect of water and sanitation on child health: evidence from the demographic and health surveys 1986–2007. Int J Epidemiol 40: 1196–1204.
-
5.
Spears D, Ghosh A, Cumming O, 2013. Open defecation and childhood stunting in India: an ecological analysis of new data from 112 districts. PLoS One 8: e73784.
-
6.
Null C et al. 2018. Effects of water quality, sanitation, handwashing, and nutritional interventions on diarrhoea and child growth in rural Kenya: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet Glob Health 6: e316–e329.
-
7.
Luby SP et al. 2018. Effects of water quality, sanitation, handwashing, and nutritional interventions on diarrhoea and child growth in rural Bangladesh: a cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet Glob Health 6: e302–e315.
-
8.
Humphrey JH, 2009. Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing. Lancet 374: 1032–1035.
-
9.
George CM et al. 2015. Fecal markers of environmental enteropathy are associated with animal exposure and caregiver hygiene in Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 93: 269–275.
-
10.
Ngure FM et al. 2013. Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 709–716.
-
11.
Petri WA, Naylor C, Haque R, 2014. Environmental enteropathy and malnutrition: do we know enough to intervene? BMC Med 12: 187.
-
12.
Campbell DI, Elia M, Lunn PG, 2003. Growth faltering in rural Gambian infants is associated with impaired small intestinal barrier function, leading to endotoxemia and systemic inflammation. J Nutr 133: 1332–1338.
-
13.
Lin A, Arnold BF, Afreen S, Goto R, Huda TMN, Haque R, Raqib R, Unicomb L, Ahmed T, Colford JM Jr., 2013. Household environmental conditions are associated with enteropathy and impaired growth in rural Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 130–137.
-
14.
Kosek M et al. 2013. Fecal markers of intestinal inflammation and permeability associated with the subsequent acquisition of linear growth deficits in infants. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88: 390–396.
-
15.
Sudfeld CR, McCoy DC, Fink G, Muhihi A, Bellinger DC, Masanja H, Smith ER, Danaei G, Ezzati M, Fawzi WW, 2015. Malnutrition and its determinants are associated with suboptimal cognitive, communication, and motor development in tanzanian children. J Nutr 145: 2705–2714.
-
16.
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) [Tanzania] and ICF Macro, 2011. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 2010. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: NBS and ICF Macro.
-
17.
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) [Tanzania] and ICF Macro, 2005. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 2004. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: NBS and ORC Macro.
-
18.
Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children (MoHCDGEC) [Tanzania, Mainland], Ministry of Health (MOH) [Zanzibar], National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), office of the Government Statistician (OCGS), ICF, 2016. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey (TDHS-MIS) 2015–16. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Rockville, MD: MoHCDGEC, MoH, NBS, OCGS, and ICF.
-
19.
WHO, 2010. Nutrition Landscape Information System (NLIS): Country Profile Indicators—Interpretation Guide. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
20.
IFPRI, 2014. Enhanced Homestead Food Production Plus+ Program in the Lake Zone, Tanzania. ClinicalTrials.gov. Available at: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02259166?term=MNP&cntry1=AF%3ATZ&rank=1. Accessed August 14, 2017.
-
21.
Erhardt JG, Estes JE, Pfeiffer CM, Biesalski HK, Craft NE, 2004. Combined measurement of ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor, retinol binding protein, and C-reactive protein by an inexpensive, sensitive, and simple sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. J Nutr 134: 3127–3132.
-
22.
George CM et al. 2016. Unsafe child feces disposal is associated with environmental enteropathy and impaired growth. J Pediatr 176: 43–49.
-
23.
Thurnham DI, McCabe GP, Northrop-Clewes CA, Nestel P, 2003. Effects of subclinical infection on plasma retinol concentrations and assessment of prevalence of vitamin A deficiency: meta-analysis. Lancet 362: 2052–2058.
-
24.
World Health Organization, 2006. Child growth standards: length/height-for-age. Available at: http://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/height_for_age/en/. Accessed October 13, 2015.
-
25.
WHO, 1995. Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. WHO Technical Report Series, 854. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
26.
World Health Organization, 2011. Haemoglobin Concentrations for the Diagnosis of Anaemia and Assessment of Severity. Vitamin and Mineral Nutrition Information System (WHO/NMH/NHD/MNM/11.1). Available at: http://www.who.int/vmnis/indicators/haemoglobin.pdf. Accessed June 15, 2015.
-
27.
WHO, UNICEF, US Agency for International Development, Academy for Educational Development–Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance-2, University of California at Davis, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2008. Indicators for Assessing Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices: Part 1: Definitions. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
28.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), FHI360, 2016. Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women: A Guide for Measurement. Rome, Italy: FAO.
-
29.
Ahmed I, Begum R, 2010. Hand Washing Practice in ASEH Project Area: A Study for Impact Monitoring. Available at: https://www.wsscc.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Hand-Washing-Practice-in-ASEH-Project-Area-A-Study-for-Impact-Monitoring-South-Asia-Practitioners-Workshop-Bangladesh-February-2010.pdf. Accessed October 15, 2015.
-
30.
WHO, UNICEF, 2015. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation. Available at: http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/. Accessed August 18, 2017.
-
31.
Coates J, Swindale A, Bilinsky P, 2007. Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for Measurement of Household Food Access: Indicator Guide (v. 3). Washington, DC: FHI360.
-
32.
Maxwell D, Coates J, Vaitla B, 2013. How Do Different Indicators of Household Food Security Compare ? Empirical Evidence from Tigray. Somerville, MA: Feinstein International Center.
-
33.
Deitchler M, Ballard T, Swindale A, Coates J, 2011. Introducing a Simple Measure of Household Hunger for Cross-Cultural Use. Washington, DC: FANTA-2 & AED.
-
34.
Merrill RD, Burke RM, Northrop-Clewes CA, Rayco-Solon P, Flores-Ayala R, Namaste SM, Serdula MK, Suchdev PS, 2017. Factors associated with inflammation in preschool children and women of reproductive age: biomarkers reflecting inflammation and nutritional determinants of anemia (BRINDA) project. Am J Clin Nutr 106 (Suppl 1): 348S–358S.
-
35.
Benzoni N, Korpe P, Thakwalakwa C, Maleta K, Stephenson K, Manary M, Manary M, 2015. Plasma endotoxin core antibody concentration and linear growth are unrelated in rural Malawian children aged 2–5 years. BMC Res Notes 8: 258.
-
36.
Bender R, Lange S, 2001. Adjusting for multiple testing—when and how? J Clin Epidemiol 54: 343–349.
-
37.
Mann CJ, 2003. Observational research methods. Research design II: cohort, cross sectional, and case-control studies. Emerg Med J 20: 54–60.
-
38.
Ministry of Health and Social Welfare [Tanzania], 2011. Guidelines for Assuring Safety of Preventive Chemotherapy. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: National Programme for Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases and Tanzania Food and Drugs Authority.
-
39.
Kosek MN et al. 2017. Causal pathways from enteropathogens to environmental enteropathy: findings from the MAL-ED birth cohort study. EBioMedicine 18: 109–117.
-
40.
Prendergast AJ, Rukobo S, Chasekwa B, Mutasa K, Ntozini R, Mbuya MNN, Jones A, Moulton LH, Stoltzfus RJ, Humphrey JH, 2014. Stunting is characterized by chronic inflammation in Zimbabwean infants. PLoS One 9: e86928.
-
41.
Korpe PS, Petri WA Jr., 2012. Environmental enteropathy: critical implications of a poorly understood condition. Trends Mol Med 18: 328–336.
-
42.
Oluwafemi F, Ibeh IN, 2011. Microbial contamination of seven major weaning foods in Nigeria. J Health Popul Nutr 29: 415–419.
-
43.
Ygberg S, Nilsson A, 2012. The developing immune system—from foetus to toddler. Acta Paediatr 101: 120–127.
-
44.
Simon AK, Hollander GA, McMichael A, 2015. Evolution of the immune system in humans from infancy to old age. Proc Biol Sci 282: 20143085.
-
45.
Victora CG, de Onis M, Hallal PC, Blossner M, Shrimpton R, 2010. Worldwide timing of growth faltering: revisiting implications for interventions. Pediatrics 125: e473–e480.
-
46.
Jaeggi T et al. 2014. Iron fortification adversely affects the gut microbiome, increases pathogen abundance and induces intestinal inflammation in Kenyan infants. Gut 64: 731–742.
-
47.
Mbuya MNN, Humphrey JH, 2016. Preventing environmental enteric dysfunction through improved water, sanitation and hygiene: an opportunity for stunting reduction in developing countries. Matern Child Nutr 12: 106–120.
-
48.
Rah JH, Cronin AA, Badgaiyan B, Aguayo VM, Coates S, Ahmed S, 2015. Household sanitation and personal hygiene practices are associated with child stunting in rural India: a cross-sectional analysis of surveys. BMJ Open 5: e005180.
-
49.
HKI, 2014. WASH Formative Research for CHANGE. Mwanza, Tanzania: Helen Keller International.
-
50.
Khatri RB, Mishra SR, Khanal V, Choulagai B, 2015. Factors associated with underweight among children of former-Kamaiyas in Nepal. Front Public Health 3: 11.
-
51.
Marriott BP, White A, Hadden L, Davies JC, Wallingford JC, 2012. World Health Organization (WHO) infant and young child feeding indicators: associations with growth measures in 14 low‐income countries. Matern Child Nutr 8: 354–370.
-
52.
Onyango AW, Borghi E, de Onis M, Casanovas M del C, Garza C, 2013. Complementary feeding and attained linear growth among 6–23-month-old children. Public Health Nutr 17: 1–9.
-
53.
Abu-Jawdeh M, Becquey E, Birba O, Golan J, Le Port A, Olney DK, Rawat R, Van Den Bold M, 2015. Helen Keller International’s Creating Homestead Agriculture for Nutrition and Gender Equity (CHANGE) Program in Tanzania—Baseline Report. Washington, DC: Helen Keller International and IFPRI.
-
54.
Psaki S et al. 2012. Household food access and child malnutrition: results from the eight-country MAL-ED study. Popul Health Metr 10: 24.
-
55.
Young SL, Sherman PW, Lucks JB, Pelto GH, 2011. Why on earth?: evaluating hypotheses about the physiological functions of human geophagy. Q Rev Biol 86: 97–120.
-
56.
Kawai K, Saathoff E, Antelman G, Msamanga G, Fawzi WW, 2009. Geophagy (soil-eating) in relation to anemia and helminth infection among HIV-infected pregnant women in Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 36–43.
-
57.
Young SL, Goodman D, Farag TH, Ali SM, Khatib MR, Khalfan SS, Tielsch JM, Stoltzfus RJ, 2007. Geophagia is not associated with Trichuris or hookworm transmission in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101: 766–772.
-
58.
Siza JE, Kaatano GM, Chai JY, Eom KS, Rim HJ, Yong TS, Min DY, Chang SY, Ko Y, Changalucha JM, 2015. Prevalence of schistosomes and soil-transmitted helminths and morbidity associated with schistosomiasis among adult population in lake Victoria basin, Tanzania. Korean J Parasitol 53: 525–533.
-
59.
WHO, 2018. Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections—Key Facts. Available at: http://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/soil-transmitted-helminth-infections. Accessed July 13, 2018.
-
60.
WHO, 2015. Assessing the Epidemiology of Soil-Transmitted Helminths during a Transmission Assessment Survey in the Global Programme for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
61.
Arndt MB, Richardson BA, Ahmed T, Mahfuz M, Haque R, John-Stewart GC, Denno DM, Petri WA, Kosek M, Walson JL, 2016. Fecal markers of environmental enteropathy and subsequent growth in Bangladeshi children. Am J Trop Med Hyg 95: 694–701.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 2524 | 2185 | 69 |
| Full Text Views | 536 | 12 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 236 | 11 | 0 |