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ABSTRACT |
 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Scabies mites have not been studied at the molecular level until recently because of the difficulty of obtaining material, a problem that has been overcome in part by expressed sequence tag approaches.7–9 Among 43,776 sequence tags, 33 distinct contigs represented by 105 clones were found to have the house dust mite (HDM) Group 3 serine protease allergen as their top BLASTx match.8 Serine proteases of the S1 family were their next closest matches. In all but one of these genes, the catalytic triad has been mutated with the consequence that they cannot be active proteases by any known mechanism. They have been named scabies mite inactivated protease paralogues (SMIPPs).8 Although these genes exhibited considerable diversity, they could be grouped into four distinct clades. Commonly (but not exclusively), the active serine was mutated to alanine. Furthermore, in many of them, the histidine and aspartic acid corresponding to the active site have also been mutated. None of the SMIPPs bore any domains in addition to that corresponding to the catalytic domain of a serine protease.
Current evidence that the proteins encoded by these genes are synthesized in the mite include identification of the SMIPP genes in a cDNA library and the absence of introns and nonsense codons.8 However, this has not previously been confirmed in vivo. The major allergens of the HDM have been extensively studied.10 The Group 3 allergen has been characterized as a trypsin-like protease11 and is a major component of the mite scybala (fecal pellet).12 It has been theorized but not proven that it is expressed in the gut. These proteases are implicated in the allergic response to the house dust mite (HDM), and as such, are elicitors of conditions such as asthma. Anti-sera to scabies mites and HDM allergens cross-react.13 Besides being inactive, the other major difference between the HDM Group 3 allergens and the SMIPPs is that the amino acid corresponding to the key specificity site of the trypsin-like Group 3 allergen (aspartic acid) has changed in SMIPPs and now indicates a chymotrypsin-like binding specificity. This is consistent with the idea that the targets of the SMIPPs have changed from those of the Group 3 allergens. Further support comes from the loss of the disulphide bond that would normally flank the "active" serine, and this may allow flexibility within the binding pocket of SMIPP proteins. Indeed SMIPPs are not found in the closely related HDM and therefore may have evolved as an adaptation to the parasitic lifestyle of the scabies mite.8,14 Examples of such proteins acquiring novel functions have been documented.15 The functions of SMIPPs cannot include proteolysis, but they may retain the ability to bind peptides and, for example, function as inhibitors of proteolysis.
Localization of the SMIPPs in situ constitutes an important step toward establishing their function(s). Localization could indicate whether the SMIPPs would be able to interact with the host tissues, and importantly, with the host immune defenses. In this study, we produced antibodies in mice to five different SMIPPs representing the four clades and used them to probe sections of formalin-fixed human skin tissue that was heavily infested with scabies mites.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Preparation of antibodies. Ethical approval for the production of antibodies in mice was obtained from the Queensland Institute of Medical Research Animal Ethics Committee (approval A01004). Antibodies to the recombinant SMIPP proteins were raised in C57BL/6 female mice and tested for cross-reactivity using standard Western blot methodology. Commercial anti-human IgG, raised in sheep and conjugated with horseradish peroxidase (Silenus, Melbourne, Australia), was used as a positive control for the gut. To ensure that we were not preferentially localizing the gut irrespective of antibody, two further controls were used. Antibodies to S. scabiei glutathione S-transferase (GST) were raised in rabbits16 and antibodies to Der p 10 were a gift from Wayne Thomas (Telethon Institute, Perth, Australia).
Tissue preparation. Ethical approval for the use of shed skin crusts from the bedding of a patient with recurrent crusted scabies was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Northern Territory Department of Health and Community Services and the Menzies School of Health Research (approval no. 01/15). Skin crusts were placed overnight in a petri dish on a warming plate at 27°C. To fix the mites and skin tissue, a modified version of the methodology of Bi and others17 was used. In brief; mites were picked from the petri dishes and placed into the cap of a 1.5-mL eppendorf tube in groups of 100. Chloroform soaked filter paper was placed into the bottom of the tube, and the cap was closed for 2 minutes. The filter paper was replaced with filter paper soaked in undiluted formaldehyde, and the cap was closed for 3 hours. The mites were removed and placed into a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tube and secured with 5% agar. When the agar was set, it was placed into 70% ethanol.
Where skin tissue was highly infested with scabies mites, blocks ~5 mm3 were cut and placed into a small petri dish. Filter paper soaked in chloroform was added for 2 minutes and removed. Formalin solution (10%) was added to the petri dish, and the sample was left to fix for 3 hours. The skin sample was placed into 70% ethanol.
The tissue and single mites were dehydrated in increasing concentrations of ethanol before being embedded in paraffin at 60°C. Sections were cut at 6–10 µm and coated on Super-Frost plus slides (Menzel-Gläser, Braunschweig, Germany) and dried overnight at 34°C.
Immunohistochemistry. Slides were dewaxed in xylol and graded alcohol and placed into running water. Because of the short fixation time, no antigen retrieval method was needed. Slides were placed into phosphate buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.4, for three washes and incubated in 10% goat serum/1% bovine serum albumin (BSA)/PBS for 30 minutes to block non-specific protein binding. The goat serum was decanted, and endogenous peroxidase activity was blocked with 3% (vol/vol) hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)/1%BSA/PBS for 10 minutes. After washing, the primary antibody was diluted in 1% BSA/PBS and added to the sections for 1 hour at room temperature. After washing, the slides were incubated with Dako EnVision (DakoCytomation, Carpinteria, CA) anti-mouse serum labeled with horseradish peroxidase for 30 minutes at room temperature. After washing, the chromogenic reaction was conducted using Nova Red (Vector, Burlingame, CA) staining for 12 minutes. The reaction was stopped by placing the slides into deionized water before being counterstained with hematoxylin for 1 minute and dehydrated in graded ethanol, cleared in xylene, and mounted using DePax (DPX Neutral Mounting Medium; Chem-Supply Pty, Gillman, South Australia, Australia). Shown antigen–antibody binding was recorded by photography. Pre-bleeds from mice used for raising antibodies were used as negative controls.
Descriptions of internal anatomy. The internal anatomy was identified with help from Desch and others18 and Heilson.19
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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The localization of SMIPP proteins within and outside the scabies mite was shown using sections of human skin infested with mites. The sections were probed with the polyclonal antibodies raised in mice against individual SMIPPs. Sections were also probed with serum from the same mouse before it raised antibodies as a negative control. In all cases, the sections probed with the pre-bleed only stained with the counterstain (Figure 1B
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–E). Staining of the gut was the most easily seen; however, sections that were in the right plane also showed staining in the esophagus. For Yv6023A04, there was also possible localization in the eggs of the mite, both before and after the egg has been laid, although this was poorly reproducible (data not shown). Human IgG, which for the purpose of this experiment was used as a positive control, was localized to the gut (Figure 1A) as previously documented.20 This confirmed that, in the adjacent serial section, labeling by anti-SMIPP sera was indeed in the gut. The anti-S. scabiei GST positive control sera localized to the integument of the epidermis and body cavities, with minor staining in the digestive system (data not shown) as previously described.21
SMIPPs were also localized to external acellular masses, which we conclude are scybala (fecal pellets; Figure 1F). This was to be expected because all components within the gut are presumably expelled in the scybala. The scybala were negative to pre-bleed and anti-Der p 10 sera and reacted comparatively faintly to anti-GST (data not shown), consistent with this conclusion.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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It is clear from the above that SMIPPs exist in two compartments: 1) internal to the mite in the gut and 2) external to the mite after excretion from the gut in scybala. Different proteolytic "threats" face the mite in each of these locations.
Internally the imbibed plasma in the gut presumably contains the serine protease cascades of both the blood clotting and complement fixation pathways. Complement has been shown to be an important component in host defense against ticks.22 Both these pathways must be inhibited while simultaneously digestion of epidermal protein as food must take place.
In the HDM, it is the allergens in the scybala that cause the most problems to those susceptible to allergic reaction.23 That the SMIPPs are also localized to scybala shows that the SMIPPs are available to interact with and presumably disrupt the host immune system. The endoparasitic wasp, Cotesia rubecula, presents an example of a proteolytically inactive serine protease facilitating avoidance of the host immune system. It uses a clip domain serine protease paralog to disrupt the proteolytic cascade that leads to the formation of melanin in the host.24,25 By disrupting this process, the wasp avoids immune system activation directed against the deposition of her eggs.
The scabies mite’s life cycle is contained almost entirely within the skin of the host. It therefore must contend with skin shedding; interrupting this process would be beneficial to the mite. In crusted scabies, one classic sign is hyperkeratosis. Inhibition of the serine protease stratum corneum chymotryptic enzyme (SCCE) can affect the cleavage of desmosome adhesion molecules leading to hyperkeratosis.26 Inactive enzymes often modulate the activity of their active counterpart.27 A number of processes relevant to the life cycle of the mite involve serine proteases.
Other functions of inactive protease paralogues include anti-microbial activities.28 Burrows of the scabies mite often contain microbes such as Group A streptococci, and these may be targets of SMIPPs. There is increasing evidence that skin streptococcal infections may directly cause rheumatic fever, which is common in many scabies endemic regions.29,30
While there are cases of inactive proteases throughout the literature, most are in considerably smaller families of two or three members.15 With the large number of SMIPPs found, there would be a huge amount of redundancy if all had the same function. While the functions of SMIPPs are yet to be determined and the binding partners to be elucidated, the evidence here that SMIPPs are found both inside and outside of the mite suggests that they could potentially be involved in multiple processes.
Using sections of tissue infected with mites, it is hard to differentiate which stages of the life cycle of the mite have positive localization except for adult females bearing eggs. Therefore, although we know that the proteins are located in the gut, we cannot address at which other stages of the life cycle the proteins are expressed. Further work using RT-PCR could address this issue.
Received April 19, 2006. Accepted for publication June 18, 2006.
Acknowledgments: We thank Malcolm Jones (Queensland Institute of Medical Research), Wayne Thomas (Telethon Institute, Perth), and Euan Tovey (Woolcock Institute, Sydney) for technical advice and Larry Arlian (Wright State University) for confirming our interpretation of early data.
Financial support: This work was supported by Program Grant 290208 and a fellowship to D.J.K. from the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council. C.W. is supported by a NHMRC Dora Lush scholarship.
* Address correspondence to Katja Fischer, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, 300 Herston Road, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia. E-mail: Katja.Fischer{at}qimr.edu.au 
Authors’ addresses: Charlene Willis, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, 300 Herston Road, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia, Telephone: 61-7-3362-0420, Fax: 61-7-3362-0104, E-mail: Charlene.Willis{at}qimr.edu.au. Katja Fischer, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, 300 Herston Road, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia, Telephone: 61-7-3362-0417, Fax: 61-7-3362-0104, E-mail: Katja.Fischer{at}qimr.edu.au. Shelley F. Walton, Menzies School of Health Research, Rocklands Drive, Darwin Northern Territory 0811, Australia, Telephone: 61-8-8922-8928, Fax: 61-8-8927-5187, E-mail: Shelley.Walton{at}menzies.edu.au. Bart J. Currie, Menzies School of Health Research, Rocklands Drive, Darwin, Northern Territory 0811, Australia, Telephone: 61-8-8922-8056, Fax: 61-8-8927-5187, E-mail: Bart.Currie{at}menzies.edu.au. David J. Kemp, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, 300 Herston Road, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia, Telephone: 61-7-3362-0402, Fax: 61-7-3362-0104, E-mail: Dave.Kemp{at}qimr.edu.au.
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REFERENCES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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