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Microbiological Effectiveness and Cost of Disinfecting Water by Boiling in Semi-urban India

Despite shortcomings, boiling is the most common means of treating water at home and the benchmark against which emerging point-of-use water treatment approaches are measured. In a 5-month study, we assessed the microbiological effectiveness and cost of the practice among 218 self-reported boilers relying on unprotected water supplies. Boiling was associated with a 99% reduction in geometric mean fecal coliforms (FCs; P < 0.001). Despite high levels of fecal contamination in source water, 59.6% of stored drinking water samples from self-reported boilers met the World Health Organization standard for safe drinking water (0 FC/100mL), and 5.7% were between 1 and 10 FC/100 mL. Nevertheless, 40.4% of stored drinking water samples were positive for FCs, with 25.1% exceeding 100 FC/100 mL. The estimated monthly fuel cost for boiling was INR 43.8 (US$0.88) for households using liquid petroleum gas and INR 34.7 (US$0.69) for households using wood.

Received February 2, 2008. Accepted for publication May 14, 2008.

Acknowledgments: The authors thank the communities of Virar, Vasai, and Nalasopara for cooperation in connection with this study and to Wolf-Peter Schmidt and Lucy Smith of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and for their assistance.

Financial support: This study was funded in part by Hindustan Unilever Limited (HUL). NN, RG, DD, and NS are employees of HUL. HUL manufactures and sells household-based water filters and could benefit from research showing that boiling is less effective or more costly than its products.

^* Address correspondence to Thomas Clasen, Disease Control and Vector Biology Unit, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK. E-mail: thomas.clasen{at}lshtm.ac.uk

Authors’ addresses: Thomas Clasen and Sophie Boisson, Disease Control and Vector Biology Unit, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK, Tel: 44-020-7927-2916, E-mails: thomas.clasen{at}lshtm.ac.uk and sophie.boisson{at}lshtm.ac.uk. Catherine McLaughlin, Centre for Global Health Research, 70 Richmond St. E, Suite 202, Toronto, ON M5C 1N8, Canada, Tel: 1-416-864-6060 x3321, E-mail: mclaughlinc{at}smh.toronto.on.ca. Neeru Nayaar, Romesh Gupta, Dolly Desai, and Nimish Shah, Hindustan Unilever Limited, Research Centre, Unilever Research India, Bangalore, India, Tel: 91-080-31191, E-mails: neeru.nayaar{at}unilever.com, nimish.shah{at}unilever.com, romesh.gupta{at}unilever.com, and dolly.desai{at}unilever.com.