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At six sites in western Kenya, we explored the presence of Anopheles immature stages in treeholes. An. gambiae larvae were found in 19 species, 13 of which are exotic. The most common exotic species were Delonix regia, Jacaranda mimosipholia, and Eucalyptus citrodora. In Kisumu city, longitudinal assessments of 10 flamboyant trees showed repeated presence of An. gambiae s.s. in treeholes with water. Production of Anopheles larvae did not correlate with habitat volume but with habitat height, showing a strong but statistically insignificant negative correlation. During a dry season, eggs recovered by rinsing dry treeholes hatched into 2.5 ± 3.06 An. gambiae and 7.9 ± 8.2 Aedes larvae. In cage experiments, An. gambiae s.s. laid more eggs in water originating from treeholes than in distilled or lake water, implying preference for ovipositing in this habitat. Our findings indicate that treeholes represent a hitherto unrecognized habitat for malaria vectors, which needs further studies.
Received October 25, 2006. Accepted for publication January 8, 2007.
Acknowledgments: The authors dedicate this study to both the former Director General of ICIPE, H. R. Herren and his successor, C. Borgemeister, for consistent interest, support, and encouragement. The authors thank Pamela Seda of ICIPE Malaria Research Laboratory for the PCR analyses. Figure 1 was prepared by Ronald Osano. The biology teacher, Father Macarios, of Cardinal Otunga High-School (Mosocho, Kisii District) helped in species identification of the treehole-bearing trees. Morphologic mosquito species identification was carried out at Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Kisumu. ICIPE’s field project staff made valuable contributions to this study.
Financial support: This study was supported by the Government of Finland trough Grant 24811201 and BioVision, Switzerland to ICIPE (Francois X. Omlin). Travel expenses for John C. Carlson were provided through NIH ICIDR Grant U19 A145511 and personal financial support provided through CDC fellowship Training Grant CCT 622308-02.
Disclaimer: The opinions or assertions contained in this manuscript are the private ones of the authors and are not to be construed as official or reflecting the views of the US Public Health Service or Department of Health and Human Services. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by the US Public Health Service or Department of Health and Human Services.
* Address correspondence to Francois X. Omlin, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), PO Box 35 Kisii, Kenya. E-mail: fomlin{at}icipe.org and fomlin{at}kisian.mimcom.net
Authors’ addresses: Francois X. Omlin, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), PO Box 35 Kisii, Kenya, Telephone: 254-727-801284, Fax: 254-20-8632001/2, E-mail: fomlin{at}icipe.org and fomlin{at}kisian.mimcom.net. John C. Carlson, Tulane University, Department of Pediatrics, New Orleans, LA 70112, E-mail: jcarlso{at}tulane.edu. C. Brandon Ogbunugafor, Yale University, School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, E-mail: chieke.brandon{at}yale.edu. Ahmed Hassanali, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), PO Box 30772 Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: ahassanali{at}icipe.org.
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