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The seasonal dynamics and spatial distributions of Anopheles mosquitoes and Plasmodium falciparum parasites were studied for one year at 30 villages in Malindi, Kilifi, and Kwale Districts along the coast of Kenya. Anopheline mosquitoes were sampled inside houses at each site once every two months and malaria parasite prevalence in local school children was determined at the end of the entomologic survey. A total of 5,476 Anopheles gambiae s.l. and 3,461 An. funestus were collected. Species in the An. gambiae complex, identified by a polymerase chain reaction, included 81.9% An. gambiae s.s., 12.8% An. arabiensis, and 5.3% An. merus. Anopheles gambiae s.s. contributed most to the transmission of P. falciparum along the coast as a whole, while An. funestus accounted for more than 50% of all transmission in Kwale District. Large spatial heterogeneity of transmission intensity (< 1 up to 120 infective bites per person per year) resulted in correspondingly large and significantly related variations in parasite prevalence (range = 38–83%). Thirty-two percent of the sites (7 of 22 sites) with malaria prevalences ranging from 38% to 70% had annual entomologic inoculation rates (EIR) less than five infective bites per person per year. Anopheles gambiae s.l. and An. funestus densities in Kwale were not significantly influenced by rainfall. However, both were positively correlated with rainfall one and three months previously in Malindi and Kilifi Districts, respectively. These unexpected variations in the relationship between mosquito populations and rainfall suggest environmental heterogeneity in the predominant aquatic habitats in each district. One important conclusion is that the highly non-linear relationship between EIRs and prevalence indicates that the consistent pattern of high prevalence might be governed by substantial variation in transmission intensity measured by entomologic surveys. The field-based estimate of entomologic parameters on a district level does not provide a sensitive indicator of transmission intensity in this study.
Received April 9, 2002. Accepted for publication March 5, 2003.
Acknowledgments: We are grateful for the assistance of all scientific staff at the Center for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, particularly Dr. N.M. Peshu and Professor Kevin Marsh. We thank the technical and field staff for the collection and processing of the mosquitoes, particularly Pamela Seda, Festus Yaah, Shida David, and Gabriel Nzai. This paper is published with the permission of the Director of the Kenya Medical Research Institute.
Financial support: This study was supported by core funds from the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, and National Institutes of Health grants U19 AI-45511 and D43 TWO1142.
Authors’ addresses: Charles M. Mbogo, Joseph M. Mwangangi, and Joseph G. Nzovu, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, PO Box 428, Kilifi, Kenya, Telephone: 254-125-220-63, Fax: 254-125-223-80, E-mail: cmbogo{at}kilifi.mimcom.net. Weidong Gu, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907. Guiyun Yan, Department of Biologic Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260. James T. Gunter and James L. Regens, Institute of Science and Public Policy, University of Oklahoma, 100 E. Boyd Room 510, Norman, OK 73019. Chris Swalm, Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University, 1440 Canal Street, New Orleans, LA 70112. Joseph Keating, Department of International Health and Development, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, TB46, Tulane University, 1440 Canal Street, New Orleans, LA 70112. Josephat I. Shililu and John I. Githure, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, PO Box 30772, Nairobi, Kenya. John C. Beier, Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, SL17, Tulane University, 1501 Tulane Avenue, Room 505, New Orleans, LA 70112.
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